termining. DPevlopment of accessory sex Organs (phenotype), factors determiniting Development of psychologic al sex. 4 lnter telationship between brain and sex dfferentiation: Psychology and behavior (ii) Secretion of gonadotropins Interodüction Mankind is divided into two sexes, the males and the females What are the critena by which this classification is made ? There are four criteria, vizz. (i) the Chromosomal (or genetic) sex, (ii)the gonadal sex, (iii) the phenotype sex, and (iv) the Psychologica sex (i) if the chromosomal pattem is XX. then the subject, no matter what is the outward appearance, is genetically a female Conversely if chromsomal pattern is xy. the subject is male (irrespective of the ouier apptarance) Hence XX and xy are female and male genotypes respectively (ii) Testes and ovaries are the mäle and the female gonads respectrvely Therefore, when testes are present, the subjecl is, gonadally, a male Similarly, presence of the ovanes means that the subject is gonadally, a female (iii) By the acceesory sex organs (penis, epididymis, vas, seminal vesicales and the prostate in the male and Fallopian tube. Uterus, vagina and vulva in the temale) gender sex or the sex phenotype is deterrmined Thus famale phenotype will have female accessory sex organs and the male phenotype will have male accessoryt sex organs (iv) Psychological sex is the sex wnich the individual believes that he or she belongs Thus, if a qirl from her infancy, is mistaken as a boy and is reared up among the boys and she thinks that she is a boy, her psychological sex is male In vast majority of cases, there is no confusion in sex charactenstics, thai is, in a male, the genetic, gonadal. phenotype and the psychological sex are all male, so is the case with the females.Rarely however, anomalous situation anses Thus, someone may have a male genotype pattern of sex (XY) and yet the appearance from outwards (the external genitalia. the dress) may be of the femele type and the subjact believes that he is female. Two terms are commonly used - (i) sex determination and (ii) sex differentiation By the term sex detrmination. it is meant how the genetc sex pattems are made. Sex differentiation means the developement of gonads, accessory sex Organs and the Psychological aspects öf sex Thus, sex determination occurs durring the fertilization of the ovum. On the of her hand, in the early weeks of intrauterine life. the gonadal and gender sex of the fetus are not differentiated. After a few weeks of intrauterine life, a fetal gonadal and gender sex differentiation (that is, outward sex differentiating features like the development of testes, penis. prostate etc, in males or ovary, uterus, vagina. vulva etc in the female) occur. Mechanism of sex determination Human beings have 46 (23 pairs of) Chromosomes of which 44 are autosomes, and the rest two are sex chromosomes. These two sex chromosomes. in rase of the female, - are XX, whereas in case of male, ars XY. Therefore. the_ male and the female chromosomal pattern can be written as 44 + XY (=46_) and 44 + XX (=46) respctivel Owing to the reduction cell division (meiosis), a gamet (a spermatozoon or an unfertilized ovum) will contain 22 autosomes + 1 sex chromosome (i. e, total 23) In case of an ovum it has to be (obviously) always 22 + X, but In the case of a spermatozoon it may be 22 + X or 22+Y. Now, during fertilization. one such spermatozoon and one such ovum unite to form a zygote. Therefore from the ovum the_ zygote is always getting 22 +X, but from the spermatozoon it may get either 22 + X or 22 + Y. When fertilization occurs. therefore. the zygote's chrom, osomal pattren (Karyotype) can be 44 +, XX, or 44 + XY and the genotype or the genetic sex of the
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Friday, August 14, 2009
- Diagnosis can be made on micturailng cysfourethrorography Antegrade and retrograde pyelography -Antagrade pyelography demonsfrares the urinary tract
elongated in adVanced caaes, elongated and deformity öf both the minor and major calyces, produces lypical 'splder leg' appearance 8 Renal artsry stenosis On tha affected side tne abnomalitias are - (a) Decreased renalsize (diflerence öf more than 1.5 cm In length öf the two kdineys) (d) Deiay In - excreyion- of contrast A rapidseqüence urogrammay be necessary to demonstrate this since the inequality. In excretion ralas may be minimal (c) Increased corncentrration of conlrast medlum (d) demonston in slze öf the colleoting system (e) Ureteral notching (due ro development of collateral circulationr through ureteral arteies from branchae of aorta) A renal angiogram is necessary to contirm the diagnoasis 9 Ranal tumors - (a) Wilms tumor On plan x-ray, soft tissue mass is seen in region öf klodhey, wich us ually does not cross the rnidine On ivediston and dlsplaoemenl of pelvi-carycl syslsm ls seen (displac:ment bul no distortion In neuroblastoma) (b] Adenocaicinoma (Hvpe'mephrorne. Grawitz lumor) - On plaln from large sofl tiSSUE shadow with oflen calciticaion IVU - ganeralaed or focal enlargemenl of kldney (it Impalred renal functlon on affected slde, nephrotopmphy may be performed) 10 Congenital posterior urethral valveses - Diagnosis can be made on micturailng cysfourethrorography Antegrade and retrograde pyelography -Antagrade pyelography demonsfrares the urinary tract by injecrtion of contcasf inlto ranal peivis with a catheter introduced percutaneously though the loln. relrograde py elographv by cystoscopy and ureterc catheterization The technlques are used to
FILE NO.62621006
FILE NO.62621006
Monday, August 3, 2009
Keep in mind that, forex training education should not rest once you get yourself in the forex market circle. Just like any other venture, a
Forex training education has a lot of things to offer in helping you become a professional trader. You have to start off in searching for the best and the finest online courses on the net. There are multiplicities of selections provided for those who want to gain further knowledge in the areas of forex market and you will surely come up with the most efficient ones. You can also go by other forex trade software that consists of forex autopilot and forex robots. This software generate favorable outcome and constructive feedback as expediency becomes its major point. When you acquire a forex autopilot or robot, you will no longer have to do the monitoring 24/7 for the forex autopilot will be the one to do all the things that you once been doing. This software will also send forex signals on your database indicating if it is a perfect time to buy, sell or hold your currencies.
Forex training education is also comprise of demo accounts that can serve as your online resources. You can also create an account where you will be given a trial trade with no capital involve until such time that you are ready to face the inner circle and do your first trade at once. Added to this, is the significance of learning forex languages that will also play a big part in your dealings. Terminologies such as hedge, pips, currency pairs, quote currency, base currency, cross currency and the major and minor currency. The chances of coming across with these terms are viable.
Keep in mind that, forex training education should not rest once you get yourself in the forex market circle. Just like any other venture, a continuous learning process is essential to make way for greater challenges to overcome, profits to take pleasure and in due time a professional trader in your own right.
Forex training education is also comprise of demo accounts that can serve as your online resources. You can also create an account where you will be given a trial trade with no capital involve until such time that you are ready to face the inner circle and do your first trade at once. Added to this, is the significance of learning forex languages that will also play a big part in your dealings. Terminologies such as hedge, pips, currency pairs, quote currency, base currency, cross currency and the major and minor currency. The chances of coming across with these terms are viable.
Keep in mind that, forex training education should not rest once you get yourself in the forex market circle. Just like any other venture, a continuous learning process is essential to make way for greater challenges to overcome, profits to take pleasure and in due time a professional trader in your own right.
) Forex Training Education - Learn How to Become a Professional Forex Trader!
Forex training education is one of the most sought after training course formulated and specifically tailored for those who want to learn the true dealings of the trade. This becomes popular to a lot of aspiring traders, novice and even professionals. As everyone knows how the trade can move to an intensified state down to its fluctuation, it can never be gleaned that forex trading is an easy market. Reality check, it is not an uncomplicated market however, you can formulate ways on how to weather a complex market into something that will turn all the intricacies and risks as part of a challenging course and in the long run to your advantage.
When you finally come to the conclusion of undergoing forex training education, you will realize that this is something worthwhile as you begin with an investment that you will be carrying on in the duration of your trade and in your future transactions. One might come to ask, what could possibly be the best formula to gain more profit? The answer is simple, learn through forex course training education and be able to apply all the things that you have learned in your actual trade.
When you finally come to the conclusion of undergoing forex training education, you will realize that this is something worthwhile as you begin with an investment that you will be carrying on in the duration of your trade and in your future transactions. One might come to ask, what could possibly be the best formula to gain more profit? The answer is simple, learn through forex course training education and be able to apply all the things that you have learned in your actual trade.
spite what the fans of fundamental analysis say the majority of traders today rely almost entirely on a some form of technical analysis for trading cu
Once these patterns or trends are identified they must be quantified in there ability to predict price moves in a particular direction. Once done, a trader can then look at the manner in which a currency's price is currently moving and compare this to similar past patterns to predict the future direction of movement.
So, while technical analysis still requires skill, experience, and judgment the fact that it is more automated and less subjective than the research involved in fundamental analysis contributes to it's popularity. The debate over which method is better will probably never be resolved, but most traders feel that technical analysis is easier to learn and master.
There are three underlying principles one must be familiar with to fully understand technical analysis.
First, there are many factors, such as political or economic events, that will produce price movement in a particular currency pair. However, these factors, or reasons, are not what's important to technical analysis, but rather the price movement itself.
Second, technical analysis assumes that pricing moves follow a trend that can be discerned by tracking the patterns that emerge over time in the market.
Finally, the trends and patterns that emerge from historical charting and analysis of price will also be reflected in future price action movements. This is because, in the view of the technical analyst, the trading psychology of humans remains for the most part constant over time. So market participants will react in similar fashion to similar news in the future the same as they have in the past.
This "wisdom of crowds" or at least the predictability of crowds is dismissed by followers of the fundamental analysis approach. They hold to their belief that a deep understanding of the factors that affect pricing and not a reliance on patterns is the only way to produce reliable long term results.
In spite what the fans of fundamental analysis say the majority of traders today rely almost entirely on a some form of technical analysis for trading currency.
No system, whether based on fundamental and technical analysis, can accurately predict price movements every time but a good technical trader who takes the time to learn a sound methodology can do quite well.
So, while technical analysis still requires skill, experience, and judgment the fact that it is more automated and less subjective than the research involved in fundamental analysis contributes to it's popularity. The debate over which method is better will probably never be resolved, but most traders feel that technical analysis is easier to learn and master.
There are three underlying principles one must be familiar with to fully understand technical analysis.
First, there are many factors, such as political or economic events, that will produce price movement in a particular currency pair. However, these factors, or reasons, are not what's important to technical analysis, but rather the price movement itself.
Second, technical analysis assumes that pricing moves follow a trend that can be discerned by tracking the patterns that emerge over time in the market.
Finally, the trends and patterns that emerge from historical charting and analysis of price will also be reflected in future price action movements. This is because, in the view of the technical analyst, the trading psychology of humans remains for the most part constant over time. So market participants will react in similar fashion to similar news in the future the same as they have in the past.
This "wisdom of crowds" or at least the predictability of crowds is dismissed by followers of the fundamental analysis approach. They hold to their belief that a deep understanding of the factors that affect pricing and not a reliance on patterns is the only way to produce reliable long term results.
In spite what the fans of fundamental analysis say the majority of traders today rely almost entirely on a some form of technical analysis for trading currency.
No system, whether based on fundamental and technical analysis, can accurately predict price movements every time but a good technical trader who takes the time to learn a sound methodology can do quite well.
) Forex Trading - Why Forex Traders Prefer Technical Analysis
Until relatively recently fundamental analysis, or looking at past political and economic events to help them predict price movements in the underlying currencies they traded, is how most traders arrived at trading decisions.
However, fundamental analysis requires a trader to absorb lots of diverse information from many sources and considerable knowledge to interpret it accurately. Couple this with basic disagreements as to what information is important and what weight to assign it and you can begin to see why this method took enormous resources and time. Two characteristics not commonly associated with the individual investor.
The end result was that for years currency trading was the exclusive playground of large banks or other institutions with the resources to accomplish this type of analysis
Now, the rise of computing power and the proliferation of electronic information sources have lead to a fundamental shift in the way most traders analyze the Forex market.
Today most traders employ another, more automated, form of analysis known as technical analysis. This involves the combined charting of real-time and historical price movement data of currencies. Today this is mostly accomplished using computers which have the ability to do the sometimes complex math quickly in near real-time.
Technical analysis really boils down to simply taking the over one hundred years worth of recorded historical price data available from the foreign currency market and running it through a computerized charting application to look for patterns and trends.
However, fundamental analysis requires a trader to absorb lots of diverse information from many sources and considerable knowledge to interpret it accurately. Couple this with basic disagreements as to what information is important and what weight to assign it and you can begin to see why this method took enormous resources and time. Two characteristics not commonly associated with the individual investor.
The end result was that for years currency trading was the exclusive playground of large banks or other institutions with the resources to accomplish this type of analysis
Now, the rise of computing power and the proliferation of electronic information sources have lead to a fundamental shift in the way most traders analyze the Forex market.
Today most traders employ another, more automated, form of analysis known as technical analysis. This involves the combined charting of real-time and historical price movement data of currencies. Today this is mostly accomplished using computers which have the ability to do the sometimes complex math quickly in near real-time.
Technical analysis really boils down to simply taking the over one hundred years worth of recorded historical price data available from the foreign currency market and running it through a computerized charting application to look for patterns and trends.
the mechanism behind all failures. Now to sum up the best times to buy in forex trading. The best times to buy in trading industries
The mission behind buying is to provide support for the forex market exchange, as well as to analyze, examine, experiment, investigate, etc, the markets in forex currencies and exchange. Each time the traders test forex, it authenticates support.
Resistance becomes sizeable in the forex industry only when the levels of “resistance” is charted, i.e. at what time the levels of forex value, or pricing refuses to give in to jumping to a higher listing.
For this reason, at what time forex traders venture on buying low and selling high, they are making a big mistake. Traders who delay in forex trading markets will often recoil, or retract at the time some of the biggest deals transpire in the forex industry.
In short, the trends are what traders want to stay aware to, yet most traders will resist. Why, because the traders often feel uneasy at the times when other traders resisting buying and selling in forex.
Now, if you want to get ahead in forex trading and use strategies to win, I recommend you read the book on emotions, or the keys to success. No, these are not actual titles, yet visit your library to find relating material because what you are going to have to do to win in forex trading, is become friends to your discomfort.
Most people feel discomfort will experience distress, anxiety, and often it is because they fear embarrassment. The disadvantage of this way of thinking is that, most times the fears are exaggerated and the one fearing is the one who looses at the end.
Another big failure in life is that most people feel that if they are not on the normal level of thinking, they are not accepted and are set apart from the world. Read your history because you will find that the vast majority of those who succeeding in life, where different. That is they did not think on the terms of normal society. These people often win also in forex trading, since they set strategies apart from the rest.
In short, fear is the mechanism behind all failures. Now to sum up the best times to buy in forex trading. The best times to buy in trading industries, such as forex is when the market is “high” and traders are not resisting, or pulling back. In summary, when you use strategies in forex trading such as buying “high” and selling “higher,” you are off to a grand start in winning in the forex industry. As well, you have setup forex trading strategies that set you apart from the rest, which means your chances of winning are higher
Resistance becomes sizeable in the forex industry only when the levels of “resistance” is charted, i.e. at what time the levels of forex value, or pricing refuses to give in to jumping to a higher listing.
For this reason, at what time forex traders venture on buying low and selling high, they are making a big mistake. Traders who delay in forex trading markets will often recoil, or retract at the time some of the biggest deals transpire in the forex industry.
In short, the trends are what traders want to stay aware to, yet most traders will resist. Why, because the traders often feel uneasy at the times when other traders resisting buying and selling in forex.
Now, if you want to get ahead in forex trading and use strategies to win, I recommend you read the book on emotions, or the keys to success. No, these are not actual titles, yet visit your library to find relating material because what you are going to have to do to win in forex trading, is become friends to your discomfort.
Most people feel discomfort will experience distress, anxiety, and often it is because they fear embarrassment. The disadvantage of this way of thinking is that, most times the fears are exaggerated and the one fearing is the one who looses at the end.
Another big failure in life is that most people feel that if they are not on the normal level of thinking, they are not accepted and are set apart from the world. Read your history because you will find that the vast majority of those who succeeding in life, where different. That is they did not think on the terms of normal society. These people often win also in forex trading, since they set strategies apart from the rest.
In short, fear is the mechanism behind all failures. Now to sum up the best times to buy in forex trading. The best times to buy in trading industries, such as forex is when the market is “high” and traders are not resisting, or pulling back. In summary, when you use strategies in forex trading such as buying “high” and selling “higher,” you are off to a grand start in winning in the forex industry. As well, you have setup forex trading strategies that set you apart from the rest, which means your chances of winning are higher
) Forex Trader Forum, Where Forex Traders Talk About Forex
Forex Trading Strategies in Timing
Savvy forex traders often pinpoint the opportunities in forex trading and persist to time the industry so they know precisely when the right time is to trade, or buy. The problem is many traders buy at the wrong time, although they have monitored, explored, and checked the quotes daily. In addition, these people tend to bank on the notion that buying in forex is best when the market is low and the traders are pulling back.
At the entry level in forex, many traders erroneously time forex marketing without realizing how to fittingly, utilize pullback and the level of support.
Forex marketing has a strategy that many traders overlook. The prime strategy, which many forex traders believe is the key to profiting in the forex industry is the buying low and selling high strategy. Unfortunately, these traders are wrong, since it is a key to loosing instead.
Support in forex industry is when chronological value or pricing comes in from traders who “Buy.”
Savvy forex traders often pinpoint the opportunities in forex trading and persist to time the industry so they know precisely when the right time is to trade, or buy. The problem is many traders buy at the wrong time, although they have monitored, explored, and checked the quotes daily. In addition, these people tend to bank on the notion that buying in forex is best when the market is low and the traders are pulling back.
At the entry level in forex, many traders erroneously time forex marketing without realizing how to fittingly, utilize pullback and the level of support.
Forex marketing has a strategy that many traders overlook. The prime strategy, which many forex traders believe is the key to profiting in the forex industry is the buying low and selling high strategy. Unfortunately, these traders are wrong, since it is a key to loosing instead.
Support in forex industry is when chronological value or pricing comes in from traders who “Buy.”
You can choose the pair you want to trade, but the most people trade the main currencies, Euro, Dollar, British Pound, Japan Yen. And you can only cho
You may have already understood it, currencies are traded by pairs. The european Euro versus the US Dollar, The US Dollar versus the Japan Yen, etc. When you buy a currency, you want to sell it later at a higher price. When you sell a currency, you want to buy it later at a lower price. This is how you make profit. Think like you were buying a foreign company share. You always want to buy low, and always want to sell high.
What you are looking to when trading currencies is the exchange rate. This will tell you your next move. Buy or sell. Currencies are part of the economy of each countries. When the value of a currency is increasing, this means the economy is going better as before. The exchange rate can be viewed as the country's economy compared to another economy. This is why economic factors can help you to predict your next move. If you know that a currency will increase, you will buy it and expect to sell it at a higher price, a higher rate.
You can choose the pair you want to trade, but the most people trade the main currencies, Euro, Dollar, British Pound, Japan Yen. And you can only choose to trade one pair only if you want. You are the only person that will make the decision. Hope you are making the good ones, profit can be huge, as well as losses.
Like any business, forex trading has to be taken seriously. Lots of people are trading the forex and some are earning thousands of dollars every day. But it needs a lot of training, education and analysis before reaching such results. It can be the perfect business and actually it is for advanced traders
What you are looking to when trading currencies is the exchange rate. This will tell you your next move. Buy or sell. Currencies are part of the economy of each countries. When the value of a currency is increasing, this means the economy is going better as before. The exchange rate can be viewed as the country's economy compared to another economy. This is why economic factors can help you to predict your next move. If you know that a currency will increase, you will buy it and expect to sell it at a higher price, a higher rate.
You can choose the pair you want to trade, but the most people trade the main currencies, Euro, Dollar, British Pound, Japan Yen. And you can only choose to trade one pair only if you want. You are the only person that will make the decision. Hope you are making the good ones, profit can be huge, as well as losses.
Like any business, forex trading has to be taken seriously. Lots of people are trading the forex and some are earning thousands of dollars every day. But it needs a lot of training, education and analysis before reaching such results. It can be the perfect business and actually it is for advanced traders
) Learn Forex - Is Forex Trading The Ultimate Home Business Opportunity ?
That's true, you can be a trader at home. Forex, or Foreign Exchange Market is by far the largest financial market in the world. About $2 trillion are traded EVERY DAY. The Forex market is the currency market, where a currency is traded against another. Quick example : you buy a dollar and sell euros. Not that easy to understand. But can we do this from home ? Yes, we can. About ten years ago, you would need millions of dollars to start trading. Now you can start with a few hundreds of dollars.
What you need is your computer and an internet connexion. You can trade from the comfort of your home, without having to deal with any boss or clients. You will only deal with money. Then you can start selling dollars and buying euros and make a profit. You have to find a broker, where you will open an account and funding it. You will also have the possibility to get a demo account and practice, with fake money but in the real time market. I strongly recommend you practice a few months before thinking of "live" trading.
It is not that easy, it is extremely risky if you don't know anything about trading. First rule : don't invest what you can't afford to lose. Forex is not a game, there is a lot of parameters to take in account, and human factor is one of the most important in this business.
What you need is your computer and an internet connexion. You can trade from the comfort of your home, without having to deal with any boss or clients. You will only deal with money. Then you can start selling dollars and buying euros and make a profit. You have to find a broker, where you will open an account and funding it. You will also have the possibility to get a demo account and practice, with fake money but in the real time market. I strongly recommend you practice a few months before thinking of "live" trading.
It is not that easy, it is extremely risky if you don't know anything about trading. First rule : don't invest what you can't afford to lose. Forex is not a game, there is a lot of parameters to take in account, and human factor is one of the most important in this business.
Discover Some Magic To Beat The Forex: The Elliott Wave Theory For Forex Markets
One of the best known and least understood theories of technical analysis in forex trading is the Elliot Wave Theory. Developed in the 1920s by Ralph Nelson Elliot as a method of predicting trends in the stock market, the Elliot Wave theory applies fractal mathematics to movements in the market to make predictions based on crowd behavior. In its essence, the Elliot Wave theory states that the market – in this case, the forex market – moves in a series of 5 swings upward and 3 swings back down, repeated perpetually. But if it were that simple, everyone would be making a killing by catching the wave and riding it until just before it crashes on the shore. Obviously, there’s a lot more to it.
One of the things that makes riding the Elliot Wave so tricky is timing – of all the major wave theories, it’s the only one that doesn’t put a time limit on the reactions and rebounds of the market. A single In fact, the theories of fractal mathematics makes it clear that there are multiple waves within waves within waves. Interpreting the data and finding the right curves and crests is a tricky process, which gives rise to the contention that you can put 20 experts on the Elliot Wave theory in one room and they will never reach an agreement on which way a stock – or in this case, a currency – is headed.
Elliot Wave Basics
• Every action is followed by a reaction.It’s a standard rule of physics that applies to the crowd behavior on which the Elliot Wave theory is based. If prices drop, people will buy. When people buy, the demand increases and supply decreases driving prices back up. Nearly every system that uses trend analysis to predict the movements of the currency market is based on determining when those actions will cause reactions that make a trade profitable.
• There are five waves in the direction of the main trend followed by three corrective waves (a "5-3" move).The Elliot Wave theory is that market activity can be predicted as a series of five waves that move in one direction (the trend) followed by three ‘corrective’ waves that move the market back toward its starting point.
• A 5-3 move completes a cycle.And here’s where the theory begins to get truly complex. Like the mirror reflecting a mirror that reflects a mirror that reflects a mirror, the each 5-3 wave is not only complete in itself, it is a superset of a smaller series of waves, and a subset of a larger set of 5-3 waves – the next principle.
One of the things that makes riding the Elliot Wave so tricky is timing – of all the major wave theories, it’s the only one that doesn’t put a time limit on the reactions and rebounds of the market. A single In fact, the theories of fractal mathematics makes it clear that there are multiple waves within waves within waves. Interpreting the data and finding the right curves and crests is a tricky process, which gives rise to the contention that you can put 20 experts on the Elliot Wave theory in one room and they will never reach an agreement on which way a stock – or in this case, a currency – is headed.
Elliot Wave Basics
• Every action is followed by a reaction.It’s a standard rule of physics that applies to the crowd behavior on which the Elliot Wave theory is based. If prices drop, people will buy. When people buy, the demand increases and supply decreases driving prices back up. Nearly every system that uses trend analysis to predict the movements of the currency market is based on determining when those actions will cause reactions that make a trade profitable.
• There are five waves in the direction of the main trend followed by three corrective waves (a "5-3" move).The Elliot Wave theory is that market activity can be predicted as a series of five waves that move in one direction (the trend) followed by three ‘corrective’ waves that move the market back toward its starting point.
• A 5-3 move completes a cycle.And here’s where the theory begins to get truly complex. Like the mirror reflecting a mirror that reflects a mirror that reflects a mirror, the each 5-3 wave is not only complete in itself, it is a superset of a smaller series of waves, and a subset of a larger set of 5-3 waves – the next principle.
Exchange rates are always moving. When I say that you "hope" the value will increase
course on the forex market you will not buy only one euro, this will be few hundreds or thousands, depending on your budget and the leverage offered by the broker.
Exchange rates are always moving. When I say that you "hope" the value will increase, many factors can be used to predict the rate, based on technical or fundamental analysis. This is not the topic of this article so let's have another example of a selling trade.
We take the same pair (EUR/USD) as above starting with the same exchange rate (1.25). We want to sell euros so we can buy it later at a lower price. Here we hope, or know that the value of the euro will depreciate. We sell one euro for $1.25. The exchange rate drops to 1.15. That means that now we only need 1.15 to buy our euro back. We exchange our dollars back into euros and again, make a 10 cents profit.
When you buy or sell, you always buy or sell the base currecy. The base currency is the first one in the pair. In the pair EUR/USD, the base currency is the euro and the USD is called the quote currency. When you decide to buy, you buy euro and sell dollars. When you decide to sell, you sell euros and buy dollars.
Exchange rates are always moving. When I say that you "hope" the value will increase, many factors can be used to predict the rate, based on technical or fundamental analysis. This is not the topic of this article so let's have another example of a selling trade.
We take the same pair (EUR/USD) as above starting with the same exchange rate (1.25). We want to sell euros so we can buy it later at a lower price. Here we hope, or know that the value of the euro will depreciate. We sell one euro for $1.25. The exchange rate drops to 1.15. That means that now we only need 1.15 to buy our euro back. We exchange our dollars back into euros and again, make a 10 cents profit.
When you buy or sell, you always buy or sell the base currecy. The base currency is the first one in the pair. In the pair EUR/USD, the base currency is the euro and the USD is called the quote currency. When you decide to buy, you buy euro and sell dollars. When you decide to sell, you sell euros and buy dollars.
Learn Forex - How To Make Money Trading Forex, The Trade Process
On the forex market we are trading currencies, exchanging a currency for another. So we buy a currency hoping its value will increase compared to the value of the one we are selling. Yes, we, at the same time, buying a currency and selling another currency. An example may be a little more understandable.
We have dollars and want to buy euros. The pair traded here is EUR/USD, and the exchange rate is 1.25. You can read it like this : 1 euro equals 1.25 dollar. We hope that the euro value will be higher so that later we will buy more dollar. The exchange rate increase to 1.35, in this case we bought 1 euro using 1.25 dollar, and it now equals to 1.35 dollar. So we exchange our 1 euro back into dollars and now have 1.35.We bought 1 euro for $1.25 and sell it back for $1.35, we made a 10 cents profit. Of
We have dollars and want to buy euros. The pair traded here is EUR/USD, and the exchange rate is 1.25. You can read it like this : 1 euro equals 1.25 dollar. We hope that the euro value will be higher so that later we will buy more dollar. The exchange rate increase to 1.35, in this case we bought 1 euro using 1.25 dollar, and it now equals to 1.35 dollar. So we exchange our 1 euro back into dollars and now have 1.35.We bought 1 euro for $1.25 and sell it back for $1.35, we made a 10 cents profit. Of
Forget about psychological issues. You need to get every trade to win. Successful traders
trade (stocks, Forex, futures, etc.) If you get educated, you might acquire the knowledge and experience you require to master the Forex market. Don't read about the Forex market, don't enroll into Forex training programs and don't even look at historical charts.
Don't use any money management technique. The purpose of money management is to avoid the risk of ruin, but at the same time it helps you boost your profits, allowing them to grow geometrically. For instance, by using no money management techniques, there is a possibility that in loosing 10 trades in a row you could empty your trading account. On the other hand, by applying simple money management techniques you can avoid it. So make sure, if you want to fail, don't even consider money management.
Forget about psychological issues. You need to get every trade to win. Successful traders know that they don't need to win every trade in order to profit from the market. This is one characteristic that is hard to understand and really apply. Why? Because we are taught, since kids, that any number below 70% is a bad number. In the Forex trading environment, this is not true.
Don't use any money management technique. The purpose of money management is to avoid the risk of ruin, but at the same time it helps you boost your profits, allowing them to grow geometrically. For instance, by using no money management techniques, there is a possibility that in loosing 10 trades in a row you could empty your trading account. On the other hand, by applying simple money management techniques you can avoid it. So make sure, if you want to fail, don't even consider money management.
Forget about psychological issues. You need to get every trade to win. Successful traders know that they don't need to win every trade in order to profit from the market. This is one characteristic that is hard to understand and really apply. Why? Because we are taught, since kids, that any number below 70% is a bad number. In the Forex trading environment, this is not true.
Forex Training: Deadly Forex Mistakes That Assure Failure
Before venturing into your trading journey there are some things you need to be aware of, otherwise you could succeed on your trading adventure, and we don't want that to happen, do we? This Forex training guide will help you track the most costly mistakes Forex traders do.
First of all, make sure you don't have a trading system. Having a trading system might increase the odds of your success. If you have a system, you will have an objective way to get in and out the market. When traders create their trading systems they think objectively since there is no position to be taken at the moment. If there is no position to be taken, there is also no money at risk, if there is no money at risk, we do think objectively and are open to every possibility, thus we are able to find low risk trading opportunities. So make sure you don't have a system and trade based on a randomly approach.
First of all, make sure you don't have a trading system. Having a trading system might increase the odds of your success. If you have a system, you will have an objective way to get in and out the market. When traders create their trading systems they think objectively since there is no position to be taken at the moment. If there is no position to be taken, there is also no money at risk, if there is no money at risk, we do think objectively and are open to every possibility, thus we are able to find low risk trading opportunities. So make sure you don't have a system and trade based on a randomly approach.
Only when you are comfortable risking your cash and sometimes losing it should you attempt to trade with larger sums of money.
Most people trade on hope and fear, rather than facts. Rather than basing their trades on what the charts and the indicators actually say, these people trade on what they want them to say. They hang onto a losing trade and follow the graph down, hoping the currency pair will turn around. Or they exit a trade too soon, fearing the trend won’t last, and are satisfied with pennies that even the best Forex money management cannot balance against their losses.
Other people lose through greed, by trying to pick the highs and lows too nicely to maximize their profits to the penny. Rather than waiting to place a trade when the indicators confirm the market’s movement, they jump in too soon and are disappointed when the anticipated break-out never occurs.
Remember, there is no magic software or fool-proof trading scheme. If you cannot control your emotions, then you cannot become a winner despite yourself. But there are things you can do to improve your chances of being one of the winners, and the most powerful is to follow these rules of Forex trading:
Prepare a trading plan, using good Forex money management skills and the trading strategy of your choice—then trade your plan. Don’t alter your plan or fudge your criteria if you don’t see a good trade for a few days; wait for the market to fulfill your requirements before risking your money. Remember the law of averages: sooner or later, the market will come around.
Use stops, and trailing stops when possible, to control losses and protect your profits. Remember to set your stops far enough away from the entry price so that you aren’t closed out by normal market jitters.
Paper trade with a demo account until you are efficient and feel comfortable in the market.
When you move on and start trading with real money, it feels different than paper trading! But this is no time to change your plan. To minimize the effects of emotion, set a small, realistic initial goal and trade until you achieve your goal more often than not. Use small sums in micro or mini accounts. Only when you are comfortable risking your cash and sometimes losing it should you attempt to trade with larger sums of money.
Study your trading record and try to figure out what went wrong when you lost. To put it simply, learn from your mistakes. That alone will put you ahead of the crowd!
Other people lose through greed, by trying to pick the highs and lows too nicely to maximize their profits to the penny. Rather than waiting to place a trade when the indicators confirm the market’s movement, they jump in too soon and are disappointed when the anticipated break-out never occurs.
Remember, there is no magic software or fool-proof trading scheme. If you cannot control your emotions, then you cannot become a winner despite yourself. But there are things you can do to improve your chances of being one of the winners, and the most powerful is to follow these rules of Forex trading:
Prepare a trading plan, using good Forex money management skills and the trading strategy of your choice—then trade your plan. Don’t alter your plan or fudge your criteria if you don’t see a good trade for a few days; wait for the market to fulfill your requirements before risking your money. Remember the law of averages: sooner or later, the market will come around.
Use stops, and trailing stops when possible, to control losses and protect your profits. Remember to set your stops far enough away from the entry price so that you aren’t closed out by normal market jitters.
Paper trade with a demo account until you are efficient and feel comfortable in the market.
When you move on and start trading with real money, it feels different than paper trading! But this is no time to change your plan. To minimize the effects of emotion, set a small, realistic initial goal and trade until you achieve your goal more often than not. Use small sums in micro or mini accounts. Only when you are comfortable risking your cash and sometimes losing it should you attempt to trade with larger sums of money.
Study your trading record and try to figure out what went wrong when you lost. To put it simply, learn from your mistakes. That alone will put you ahead of the crowd!
) Forex Trading Psychology: What Makes A Successful Forex Trader?
The Forex market has changed through the years, growing in volume and expanding across multiple time zones.
Brokerage houses have changed, too, going online with sophisticated software and powerful servers.
Economic indicators and technical analysis have become more sophisticated, too, until the Forex market of today bears little resemblance to what it used to be.
But there’s one thing that hasn’t changed: most traders lose.
Despite all the advances in the Forex marketplace, the ratio of winners to losers remains low. Experts agree that the most hopeful number that can be advanced is a measly 10%, which means that 90% of all traders on any particular day will lose.
Experts also agree that the reason most traders lose is because they allow their emotions to cloud their judgment.
Brokerage houses have changed, too, going online with sophisticated software and powerful servers.
Economic indicators and technical analysis have become more sophisticated, too, until the Forex market of today bears little resemblance to what it used to be.
But there’s one thing that hasn’t changed: most traders lose.
Despite all the advances in the Forex marketplace, the ratio of winners to losers remains low. Experts agree that the most hopeful number that can be advanced is a measly 10%, which means that 90% of all traders on any particular day will lose.
Experts also agree that the reason most traders lose is because they allow their emotions to cloud their judgment.
easy Forex trading but in case you cant compose yourself
3 out of 10 trades thus is sensible to hinder your losses to a certain percent and always practice proper money management.
• Some would say that is easy Forex trading given that one can rely only on 'gut feel'. This is not an intuition game; this is a real thing since your money is at risk. Being very much dependent on 'gut feeling' will only lead to financial dilemma thus it is best to control your emotions.
• You need to have a precise and detailed log of every good or bad trade that you had before to serve as your guidelines not to make any erroneous decision later on.
• Every people has their personal indicators thus what work for your friend may not always work for you, be unique.
• Indeed, it is definitely an easy Forex trading but in case you cant compose yourself to be serious on what you are doing then there is no point of even starting.
There are other lists of guideline that would present why it is known as easy Forex trading. For the trader, you have to practice and study every step that you make. Be patient and do not just rely on your inkling if you really want to bag the money all the time.
• Some would say that is easy Forex trading given that one can rely only on 'gut feel'. This is not an intuition game; this is a real thing since your money is at risk. Being very much dependent on 'gut feeling' will only lead to financial dilemma thus it is best to control your emotions.
• You need to have a precise and detailed log of every good or bad trade that you had before to serve as your guidelines not to make any erroneous decision later on.
• Every people has their personal indicators thus what work for your friend may not always work for you, be unique.
• Indeed, it is definitely an easy Forex trading but in case you cant compose yourself to be serious on what you are doing then there is no point of even starting.
There are other lists of guideline that would present why it is known as easy Forex trading. For the trader, you have to practice and study every step that you make. Be patient and do not just rely on your inkling if you really want to bag the money all the time.
Easy Forex Trading - How to Trade Forex Easily and Profitably!
When an individual would hear the word 'Forex' it is expected that the initial reaction is that it is a complicated and mind-bugling issue to take. Although this is true at some point, it does not actually work always that way especially if an individual is aware of all the prerequisites of the game. Now, to open each eye about easy Forex trading, this article was created.
• It is easy Forex trading since you need not to overdo things. If you are just new on the Forex trading arena then you can begin with making a profit of only a 20 pips. Do not try to add up more, instead study the tactic that you will have to do the next day.
• You need not to waste all your time; it could be spent on 15 minute chart as well as 1 hour chart only.
• The 5 miniature chart is not there so you could waste yourself into. If you spend too much of your time here then it will only distract you in making a good trading decision.• Easy Forex trading also means not using the complicated MACD to buy and sell since it only arrive the individual to meaningless trades which anyone would see as a waste
• It is easy Forex trading since you need not to overdo things. If you are just new on the Forex trading arena then you can begin with making a profit of only a 20 pips. Do not try to add up more, instead study the tactic that you will have to do the next day.
• You need not to waste all your time; it could be spent on 15 minute chart as well as 1 hour chart only.
• The 5 miniature chart is not there so you could waste yourself into. If you spend too much of your time here then it will only distract you in making a good trading decision.• Easy Forex trading also means not using the complicated MACD to buy and sell since it only arrive the individual to meaningless trades which anyone would see as a waste
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ANALYSIS-Israel rates could rise before forex purchases end
ERUSALEM, July 31 (Reuters) - The Bank of Israel could raise interest rates before withdrawing all the radical measures it has taken to stimulate the economy, offering a test case for other central banks debating a return to more routine policiesOn Monday Israel became the first country to begin exiting the extraordinary measures deployed to fight the financial crisis, when it said it would stop buying government bonds, but surprised markets by maintaining its currency buying program.
The bank will have to delay ending its policy of buying foreign currency to weaken the shekel because it cannot afford to harm the crucial export sector before an economic recovery has fully taken hold.
However, the central bank's fears that a strengthening shekel could damage the economy are opposed by concerns that inflation is not firmly under wraps.
How Israel solves this dilemma will be closely watched by central banks around the world as they ponder how to roll back the extraordinary measures taken to fight the worst recession in decades.
The bank will have to delay ending its policy of buying foreign currency to weaken the shekel because it cannot afford to harm the crucial export sector before an economic recovery has fully taken hold.
However, the central bank's fears that a strengthening shekel could damage the economy are opposed by concerns that inflation is not firmly under wraps.
How Israel solves this dilemma will be closely watched by central banks around the world as they ponder how to roll back the extraordinary measures taken to fight the worst recession in decades.
illion loan (around Rs 5,280 crore at current exchange rates) contracted by the compa
Centrum Broking’s auto analyst Mahantesh Sabarad said the company’s volume outlook was looking better. “We expect a margin pressure in the next quarter coming from its new range of products such as the Nano, World truck and the Indigo Prima,” he said.
Tata Motors, under its new MD Prakash Telang, increased reach across the country and introduced new products and variants, which helped volumes, except in the heavy truck segment. Of late, this segment too has witnessed increased activity, thanks to a government stimulus package and infrastructure initiatives such as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Renewal Mission (JNRM) initiatives.
Tata Motors’ domestic sales at 122,120 vehicles saw a marginal decrease of 1.4% over the corresponding quarter while exports at 5,220 vehicles continued to be severely impacted (-43%) in the wake of continuing volatile global environment. Total sales fell 4.3% to 1.27-lakh vehicles.
Tata Motors vice-chairman Ravi Kant said the company was most affected in South Africa, Middle East, Russia and Turkey. “We expect a recovery in the July-September quarter,” Mr Kant said.
A $
Tata Motors, under its new MD Prakash Telang, increased reach across the country and introduced new products and variants, which helped volumes, except in the heavy truck segment. Of late, this segment too has witnessed increased activity, thanks to a government stimulus package and infrastructure initiatives such as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Renewal Mission (JNRM) initiatives.
Tata Motors’ domestic sales at 122,120 vehicles saw a marginal decrease of 1.4% over the corresponding quarter while exports at 5,220 vehicles continued to be severely impacted (-43%) in the wake of continuing volatile global environment. Total sales fell 4.3% to 1.27-lakh vehicles.
Tata Motors vice-chairman Ravi Kant said the company was most affected in South Africa, Middle East, Russia and Turkey. “We expect a recovery in the July-September quarter,” Mr Kant said.
A $
benefit from a recent government-approved relaxation in accounting
The flagship firm of the steel-to-software Tata Group said its standalone profit for its first quarter of the year rose to Rs 514 crore, from Rs 326 crore a year ago, even as revenues dipped 8% to Rs 6.404 crore because of weaker sales of its mainstay heavy trucks.
Of this, Rs 318 crore came from the sale of 11-million shares of Tata Steel to parent Tata Sons. An average of four analysts’ forecasts estimated India’s largest commercial vehicle maker’s net profit at Rs 100 crore, as the street factored the tight liquidity conditions and high raw material costs. Shares of Tata Motors rose 0.3% to close at Rs 374.10 on the Bombay Stock Exchange on Monday.
“The first quarter showed signs of improvement after a period of slow sales,” Tata Motors CFO C Ramkrishnan told reporters at a conference in Mumbai. “There was also a marked improvement in operating margins, mainly due to better cost efficiencies and an improvement in prices of certain products,” he added.
Tata Motors was also able to benefit from a recent government-approved relaxation in accounting norms that deferred the treatment for forex losses.
Under the new norms, the company’s notional exchange loss in the first quarter fell to Rs 5.54 crore, compared with Rs 162 crore in the previous year. The rules were relaxed to help companies on mark-to-market losses on foreign currency loans, in a market deeply affected by a volatile forex market.
Of this, Rs 318 crore came from the sale of 11-million shares of Tata Steel to parent Tata Sons. An average of four analysts’ forecasts estimated India’s largest commercial vehicle maker’s net profit at Rs 100 crore, as the street factored the tight liquidity conditions and high raw material costs. Shares of Tata Motors rose 0.3% to close at Rs 374.10 on the Bombay Stock Exchange on Monday.
“The first quarter showed signs of improvement after a period of slow sales,” Tata Motors CFO C Ramkrishnan told reporters at a conference in Mumbai. “There was also a marked improvement in operating margins, mainly due to better cost efficiencies and an improvement in prices of certain products,” he added.
Tata Motors was also able to benefit from a recent government-approved relaxation in accounting norms that deferred the treatment for forex losses.
Under the new norms, the company’s notional exchange loss in the first quarter fell to Rs 5.54 crore, compared with Rs 162 crore in the previous year. The rules were relaxed to help companies on mark-to-market losses on foreign currency loans, in a market deeply affected by a volatile forex market.
Under the new norms, the company’s notional
ms, the company’s notional exchange loss in the first quarter fell to Rs 5.54 crore, compared with Rs 162 crore in the previous year. The rules were relaxed to help companies on mark-to-market losses on foreign currency loans, in a market deeply affected by a volatile forex market.
Although Tata Motors had been able to raise its operating margin to 11.4% from 7.1% in the previous year, the market was mixed on whether the company could maintain it. “The company may be able to sustain the margin, provided the volumes don’t dip,” said HDFC Securities head of retail research Deepak Jasani.
“Since Tata Motors is largely dependent on commercial vehicle sales, for the margin to improve significantly, there has to be a major contribution from CVs,” he said.
Centrum Broking’s auto analyst Mahantesh Sabarad said the company’s volume outlook was looking better. “We expect a margin pressure in the next quarter coming from its new range of products such as the Nano, World truck and the Indigo Prima,” he said.
Although Tata Motors had been able to raise its operating margin to 11.4% from 7.1% in the previous year, the market was mixed on whether the company could maintain it. “The company may be able to sustain the margin, provided the volumes don’t dip,” said HDFC Securities head of retail research Deepak Jasani.
“Since Tata Motors is largely dependent on commercial vehicle sales, for the margin to improve significantly, there has to be a major contribution from CVs,” he said.
Centrum Broking’s auto analyst Mahantesh Sabarad said the company’s volume outlook was looking better. “We expect a margin pressure in the next quarter coming from its new range of products such as the Nano, World truck and the Indigo Prima,” he said.
The first quarter showed signs of improvement after a period of slow sales,” Tata Motors CFO C Ramkrishnan told reporters at a conference in Mumbai.
ta Motors was also able to benefit from a recent government-approved relaxation in accounting norms that deferred the treatment for forex losses.
Under the new norms, the company’s notional exchange loss in the first quarter fell to Rs 5.54 crore, compared with Rs 162 crore in the previous year. The rules were relaxed to help companies on mark-to-market losses on foreign currency loans, in a market deeply affected by a volatile forex market.
Tata Motors, whose portfolio stretches from the marque Jaguar to the world’s June quarter, on the back of share sales in a sister concern and new accounting norms that offset forex losses.
Under the new norms, the company’s notional exchange loss in the first quarter fell to Rs 5.54 crore, compared with Rs 162 crore in the previous year. The rules were relaxed to help companies on mark-to-market losses on foreign currency loans, in a market deeply affected by a volatile forex market.
Tata Motors, whose portfolio stretches from the marque Jaguar to the world’s June quarter, on the back of share sales in a sister concern and new accounting norms that offset forex losses.
the field should know this! Success depends on the trader himself. Therefore, he needs to make judicious decision on entering the trade. Currency trad
r this the software proves as real help. Though, the software is easy to use and handle, yet he can take guidance from forex software review. Reviews help him gain better understanding of a good profit-making software. If the trader chooses wrong software, it will boomerang for sure, as it is programmed to identify and close deals on its own. And the wrong software might jut prove detrimental for the trader’s success by leaving him in debt. So, the trader should make conscious thoughtful decision of choosing software that not only ensures profit but assists the trader in learning the tactics of trade.
Besides the software, if the trader gains a deep understanding of forex trading strategies, he can earn really well. Trading strategies are essentially important for any business and the forex market requires it all the more from the trader.
Currency trading is a risky venture and the trader who jumps in the field should know this! Suc
Besides the software, if the trader gains a deep understanding of forex trading strategies, he can earn really well. Trading strategies are essentially important for any business and the forex market requires it all the more from the trader.
Currency trading is a risky venture and the trader who jumps in the field should know this! Suc
account for around a half of global currency trading flows
The BoE survey results are mirrored in a similar survey released at the same time by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. It said that overall trading volumes in the US had fallen by 31 per cent in the six months to April to total $US527 billion ($639bn).
"Declines in average daily volume were broad based and were reported across all currency pairs, instrument types, counterparty types, and execution methods," the New York Fed's Foreign Exchange Committee said.
The decline takes volumes back to the lowest level since October 2005, the committee added.
Britain and the US jointly account for around a half of global currency trading flows.
Meanwhile, average daily foreign exchange turnover in the Tokyo market decreased 16 per cent to $US254.2bn in April compared with a year earlier, the Tokyo Foreign Exchange Market Committee
"Declines in average daily volume were broad based and were reported across all currency pairs, instrument types, counterparty types, and execution methods," the New York Fed's Foreign Exchange Committee said.
The decline takes volumes back to the lowest level since October 2005, the committee added.
Britain and the US jointly account for around a half of global currency trading flows.
Meanwhile, average daily foreign exchange turnover in the Tokyo market decreased 16 per cent to $US254.2bn in April compared with a year earlier, the Tokyo Foreign Exchange Market Committee
Things to know about forex trading software
If you want to earn great money from foreign exchange market, there is range of software available depending upon your requirements. Software programs have features that help you mint good money from forex trading.
Software packages when tried on demo accounts give you a clear idea of good software packages. You might not be satisfied with the package your broker provides and might want to go on with another package and to suffice this need there is array of software available. With a boost in online forex trading, many traders are looking up to trading software to enhance possibilities of a good earning from the forex market.
Forex market is highly volatile and dynamic so the trader needs to be experienced enough to know and understand all the moves of the market. Or, he can gain experience with the use of forex trading software which helps him enhance his knowledge by allowing him practice on demo accounts. For a trader it is very essential that he understands market trends only then can he be able to successfully deal with various market situations.
Software packages when tried on demo accounts give you a clear idea of good software packages. You might not be satisfied with the package your broker provides and might want to go on with another package and to suffice this need there is array of software available. With a boost in online forex trading, many traders are looking up to trading software to enhance possibilities of a good earning from the forex market.
Forex market is highly volatile and dynamic so the trader needs to be experienced enough to know and understand all the moves of the market. Or, he can gain experience with the use of forex trading software which helps him enhance his knowledge by allowing him practice on demo accounts. For a trader it is very essential that he understands market trends only then can he be able to successfully deal with various market situations.
Global forex market daily volumes slump in downturn
HE foreign exchange market has shown fresh signs of shrinking, with committees hosted by key central banks around the world showing a sharp contraction in average daily flowsSemiannual data from the Bank of England's Foreign Exchange Joint Standing Committee showed that foreign exchange turnover in Britain -- which accounts for around a third of all global flows -- stood at an average of $US1.356 trillion a day in April this year.
That marks a 20 per cent decline from levels seen in the previous survey, which tracked trading volumes in October 2008.
The committee said spot currencies trading -- the most basic end of the foreign exchange market -- accounted for a large part of the market's decline, posting a 28 per cent fall in volumes.
KEY CURRENCY TABLES
That marks a 20 per cent decline from levels seen in the previous survey, which tracked trading volumes in October 2008.
The committee said spot currencies trading -- the most basic end of the foreign exchange market -- accounted for a large part of the market's decline, posting a 28 per cent fall in volumes.
KEY CURRENCY TABLES
The bonds will be issued on Aug. 10. The bank said it would
e bonds will be issued on Aug. 10. The bank said it would
buy a minimum of C$175 million of the bonds.
($1=$1.08 Canadian)
(Reporting by Jennifer Kwan; editing by Rob Wilson)
((jennifer.kwan@thomsonreuters.com; +1 416 941 8178Neither the Subscriber nor Thomson Reuters warrants the completeness or accuracy of the Service or the suitability of the Service as a trading aid and neither accepts any liability for losses howsoever incurred. The content on this site, including news, quotes, data and other information, is provided by Thomson Reuters and its third party content providers for your personal information only, and neither Thomson Reuters nor its third party content providers shall be liable for any errors, inaccuracies or delays in content, or for any actions taken in reliance thereon.
Aug. 5 a total of C$3.5 billion
($3.2 billion) of government of Canada bonds with a coupon of
2.0 percent and maturing on Sept. 1, 2012.
The bonds will be issued on Aug. 10. The bank said it would
buy a minimum of C$175 million
buy a minimum of C$175 million of the bonds.
($1=$1.08 Canadian)
(Reporting by Jennifer Kwan; editing by Rob Wilson)
((jennifer.kwan@thomsonreuters.com; +1 416 941 8178Neither the Subscriber nor Thomson Reuters warrants the completeness or accuracy of the Service or the suitability of the Service as a trading aid and neither accepts any liability for losses howsoever incurred. The content on this site, including news, quotes, data and other information, is provided by Thomson Reuters and its third party content providers for your personal information only, and neither Thomson Reuters nor its third party content providers shall be liable for any errors, inaccuracies or delays in content, or for any actions taken in reliance thereon.
Aug. 5 a total of C$3.5 billion
($3.2 billion) of government of Canada bonds with a coupon of
2.0 percent and maturing on Sept. 1, 2012.
The bonds will be issued on Aug. 10. The bank said it would
buy a minimum of C$175 million
Forex Market Commentary - July 31, 2009
EUR/USD closed higher due to short covering on Thursday as it consolidates some of Wednesday's decline but remains below the 20-day moving average crossing. The high-range close sets the stage for a steady to higher opening on Friday. Stochastics and the RSI are bearish signalling that sideways to lower prices are possible near-term. If it extends this week's decline, the reaction low crossing is the next downside target. Closes above the 10-day moving average crossing would temper the near-term bearish outlook in the market.
USD/JPY closed lower on Thursday as it extends the decline off this month's high. The low-range close sets the stage for a steady to lower opening on Friday. Stochastics and the RSI remain bearish signalling that sideway to lower prices are possible near-term. If it extends the decline, the reaction low crossing is the next downside target. Closes above the 20-day moving average crossing are needed to confirm that a short-term low has been postedGBP/USD closed higher due to short covering on Thursday as it consolidates some of Wednesday's decline but remains below the 20-day moving average crossing. The high-range close sets the stage for a steady to higher opening on Friday. Stochastics and the RSI are bearish signalling that sideways to lower prices are possible near-term. If it extends this week's decline, the reaction low crossing is the next downside target. Closes above the 10-day moving average crossing would temper the near-term bearish outlook in the market.
DJI closed sharply higher
USD/JPY closed lower on Thursday as it extends the decline off this month's high. The low-range close sets the stage for a steady to lower opening on Friday. Stochastics and the RSI remain bearish signalling that sideway to lower prices are possible near-term. If it extends the decline, the reaction low crossing is the next downside target. Closes above the 20-day moving average crossing are needed to confirm that a short-term low has been postedGBP/USD closed higher due to short covering on Thursday as it consolidates some of Wednesday's decline but remains below the 20-day moving average crossing. The high-range close sets the stage for a steady to higher opening on Friday. Stochastics and the RSI are bearish signalling that sideways to lower prices are possible near-term. If it extends this week's decline, the reaction low crossing is the next downside target. Closes above the 10-day moving average crossing would temper the near-term bearish outlook in the market.
DJI closed sharply higher
Canada to auction C$3.5 bln bonds due 2012
Neither the Subscriber nor Thomson Reuters warrants the completeness or accuracy of the Service or the suitability of the Service as a trading aid and neither accepts any liability for losses howsoever incurred. The content on this site, including news, quotes, data and other information, is provided by Thomson Reuters and its third party content providers for your personal information only, and neither Thomson Reuters nor its third party content providers shall be liable for any errors, inaccuracies or delays in content, or for any actions taken in reliance thereon.
Aug. 5 a total of C$3.5 billion
($3.2 billion) of government of Canada bonds with a coupon of
2.0 percent and maturing on Sept. 1, 2012.
Aug. 5 a total of C$3.5 billion
($3.2 billion) of government of Canada bonds with a coupon of
2.0 percent and maturing on Sept. 1, 2012.
domestic unit appreciated by 13 paise to 4
inflows by foreign funds in line with better trends in the other Asian equity markets and dollar's weakness against other currencies mainly supported the Indian rupee.
However, sustained dollar demand from oil refiners for month-end requirements capped rupee's gains, they added.
However, sustained dollar demand from oil refiners for month-end requirements capped rupee's gains, they added.
Rupee rises by 13 paise to 48.21 a dollar in early trade
At the Interbank Foreign Exchange (Forex) market, the domestic unit appreciated by 13 paise to 48.21 a dollar. The rupee yesterday closed higher by 7 paise at 48.34/35 a dollar.
Dealers said hopes of increa
Dealers said hopes of increa
Monster Scalps With AUDJPY
I've been shamelessly scalping the AUDJPY this week (via Oanda). It may be hard to fathom, at least when you see the numbers, but I'm not entirely happy with my results.Jun 28: 00.28% NAV+Jun 29: 06.65% NAV+Jun 30: 11.66% NAV+So far this week, if I can hang onto it, I'm up over 19% on my trading account.Now, you may be wondering why I'm not satisfied with my trading. Basically, I've made too many mistakes. From time to time my discipline is lacking and I jump into a position at what is realistically an unwise entry point.This keeps me from capitalizing on later opportunities until I've extracted myself from the position foolishly entered. It also subjects me to a lot more stress while I wait out moves on a larger timeframe.
Sunday, August 2, 2009
THEORES OF CAUSATION - There is now substantial evidence that schizophrenia is, at least in part.
failure 4 Endocrine disorders - Hypogiycernis. hyperthyroidsm 5 Systemlc infections - Seticemia. axanthamata. 6, Intracramal infections - Menlngitis,. encephatllam, 7. Other intracranial causes - Space occupying lelisons, raised intracranial tension . 8 Head injury (concussion). .9 .NutntionaJ and vitamin delclency - Thiamne. nicotinc acid cyanocobaLamine 10 Epilepsy - Status aplleptcus. poei-tcial statea .Types of functlonal psycnosis. I. Scnizophrenia. It Scnizopnrerrform dsoider. III. Brief reacitva psychosis. IV. Schizo-allective disorder .V Paranoid disorders. I, Schlzophirania Kraepalln in 1896 racognload Ithis form of Iliness and colned tha term ~Dementia Precox' '' (premature deterioration of metnal lacultiss) Bleufer in 1911 introoduced the term schizophrenia (splitinig ot rnind) to identility the same liness Many of the symptoms of schizophrenia seem to result from a breakdown In the mental processes by which we differented our inner selfl from the outside world. To a normal person. thinking, speaking and hearing are quite different subjdctive experiences, but in schtzophrenia. this differentiation becomes blurred Etiology 1. AGE - Peak incidence is between 20-40 years 2 SEX -Equal incidence in both sexes 3 THEORES OF CAUSATION - There is now substantial evidence that schizophrenia is, at least in part. a disorder of neurodevelopment CT and MRI have demonstrated That a significant proportion of pts have lateral vertricular enlargement.cortical suical widening and raduced temporal lobe volumes Some studies in children who subsequently developed schizophrenia show that these children have more postural and movement abnormalities than normal children. Such
Hematological biachemical. saroloqical testis. mainly to confirm clinical diagnosis fl aystemic: disease
, psychotic symptoms. avoidance rjf situations. ddenial of cognitive- defects. jocularity. confabulation.orderliness Investigations 1 Laboratory - Hematological biachemical. saroloqical testis. mainly to confirm clinical diagnosis fl aystemic: disease. 2 .Radiological - X-ray studies, is otope scanning. CTscan. anglography. MRI 3 other - EEG. CSF analysis 4 nauropsychotogicaJ tests - to assess higher mental functions - bender-Gestalt Visual motor coordination test Wochsier Memary Scale and Intelligence tests in the latter the scores on parformanes or non-verbal sub-tests is lower than score on varbal sub-tests by at least 1.5points .Types of organic brain disorders (1)Acute-Characterised by (a) Sudden onset with rapid develpmont of impairmeni of orianiation, memory, inidteciua* functions, judgernent and affect .(b) Dalirium. stupor or coma may be present. (c) it is caused by temporaryh raversible and diffuse ddisturbnce of brein tissue function, d) Patient may recover without any residual datect, or may progress to the chronic type ,the clinical course is usually brief but may occasionally persist for a long time .2) Coonic - Characteristics are - (a)Onset is usually Insidious (b)Gradual daterioration of higher mental functlons. (c) It is caused by an irreversible, permanent and deffuse alteration of brain tissue function .(d) The clinical course usually prograsses over months or years and the syndroma may end with death .Although the causaive lactor can be Idanifiad and eliminated at times. some permnanent atleration in higher menal functione may remain. Causes. A. Acute organc brain diorders. 1 ,Drug intoxicaction - Anticholinerglc, anxiotytic-hypnotic. anticonvulsant. opiates, laevodopa. digitalls. some industrial poisons .2, Withdrawal ol alcohol and other dependency producing drugs (opiates, anxiolytics. hypnotics). 3. Metabolic disturbances - uremia. cardiac failure, electrolyte imbalance. liver
comprehension, general fund of information, abillly to LERN new tasks and ability to understand the meaninq
mental disoorder in which a parsons mental capacity, emotional reaponeivlly, capacity lo recognise reality and to comrnunlcate and relate to others sufficiently impaired so as interfere with he or her ability to deal wth the ordinary demands of life. Types of psychotic disordara; I Organic psychosies(Qrgaric brain ddisorders). II Functional psychosis .1 Schzophrenia. 2 Schzophreniform psychosis. 3 Briet reative psychosis 4 Schizu-affective psychosis .5. Paranoid states DIFFERENCES (ORGANIC BRAIN DISORDERS) Clincal manifestaiions Symptoms of organic brain disorders can be divided Into - 1 Mancttory o* Huanrtlal ayrnpioma wtifch am ssen Jn avary cane of organic psychosis. 2 Obligatory or accessory which are dependent on certain factors peculiar to the indvidual parent, I a his/her personality, emotional conficts environmental situation and Interparsonal relaiionshlps Mandatory symptoms. 1. Impairmenutof onriation in time, place and/or parson 2 Impairment of memory - Memory for recent events is impaired first. while memory for ramote eventas may be unaffected until an advanced stage of the disease process. 3. Impairment of inteffectual functions - A variety of intellectual) functions may be disturbed e. g. calculation. comprehension, general fund of information, abillly to lern new tasks and ability to understand the meaninq of verbal language (vocabulary) 4 impairment of consciousness - of varying degree, ranging from stupor. clouding of conaciousness to coma 5. Aftered emotionally - ememotional lability, i.e. patient shifts rapidly from one emotion to another or he may lose contact over his emotions - emonotinal incontinence Obligatory or accessory symptoms
- Rickets will only develop if growth is taking place, marasmic
of mothers Curalive - [a) Treatment of any accompanying Infection or diarrhoea .[b) Adequate supply of proteins and calones - High protein (3-5 gm/kg/day), calories upto 200 cals/kg/day. palatable and digestible with small frequent feeds .Widening of diet should be gradual. Principles same as in marasmus (c) Multipurpose food (MPF),a low fatted ground nut with Bengal grams (75.25) is also useful (d}Vitamin and mineral supplements. (e) Treatment of complication such as skin sepsis, lung infection, etc. (f) Treatment of elact'rolyte imbalance Potassium supplements orally upto 4-5 irEq/kg/day .lnjection magnesium sulphale 0.1 ml/kg/day of 50%solutioh. aids Incatch-up growth [g) Zinc and multivitamln supplementation Iron should! not be used in the acute stages since it catalyses the production of free radiats Should be given after oedema subsides and recovery has begun (h) Treatment of cardiac failure -Diuretics, cautious digitallsailon if co-existing severe anaema packed cells 15 ml/kg. never If Hb>5 gm% On recovery initial weight loss due to loss ol oedema and thus gainof dry weight (Inverted tick sign of Wharton) The first smile given by the child is important sign ol recovery (i) Investigaiion for underlying TB - Mantoux teat may be negative (false negative) Chest X-ray, gastric lavage for diagnosis Aacites. if present. Is almosl always fuberculous MARASMlC KWASHIORKOR - Severe form of PEM where some cases may present with both marasmus and kwashlorkorwrth variable manifestailonsol each High mortality Treatmenl pnnciples same 13 RICKETS Biology Age - Between 4 months-2 years, also in prematures. Diet - Less common in breast fed infants, may develop if mothers diet is poor. growth - Rickets will only develop if
- Use of adequate proteins, early waaningi with mixed diet education
desquamation is deep enough and resembles a burn involving limbs and abdomen and Cack, face very rarely affected enamel paint dermatosis. Petechial haemonthages terminal. Other changes not characterisic -crazy pavsment dermatosis, tissures Hair - Decolouration and brittleness of hair. Easy pluckability which is painless .During better periods of nutrition. the scalp hair may grow more normally, but a fresh band of abnormal hair will appear during another period of malnutrition [flag sign). Diarrhoea - prominent feature with watery, offensive stools leading to dehydration. Secondary to bactarial infaction. lactose Intolarance or worms, or mucosal atrophy or oedema due to PEM. Liver - may be enlarged dua to falty infiliration, due lo delcieni beta-lipoprotain, Cardiac falture - secondary to severe anemia and myopathy or protein deficiency. Occurs more in second week of dietary trealment as oadema fluid is reabaorbed. Cardinal signs of Kwashiorkor - 1 Oedema 2 Growth 1-retardation 3 Muscle wasting 4 Mental changes Differentiating features of mrasrnus and kwashiorkor. Often not wasted Prevention - Use of adequate proteins, early waaningi with mixed diet education
. KWASHIORKOR Defination - Kwashiorkor (severe or malignant protein malnutrition) -means Literalty "th
after recovery Is established 12. KWASHIORKOR Defination - Kwashiorkor (severe or malignant protein malnutrition) -means Literalty "the neglected one" and describes the young child (usually between 6 months lo 2 years) displaced from the mother's breast by the succeeding intant Theclinical syndrome is recognised in many tropical and subtropical areas where the staple diet deficient In first-class protein it is a severe form of PEM wfth oedema. Oedema occurs due to - (a) Critically low serum albumin .Synthess depressed suddenly by intercurrent infection, (b) Damage to cell membranes by Increased ''free radical" stress Infection in body allow toxic free radicals to accumulate which are not deposed of! adequataly by protective mechanisms, such aa gluttlhlone pathway, beta-carotane. vrtamln E. zinc, etc which are all depressed in severe PEW Toxic free radicals damage cell membranes and its pump mechanisms leading lo loss of K+ and retention of Na+ (c) Aggravated by infection-Induced endothelial leakiness of capillaries. Cinical fealures History - Usual history is that after a few weeks of some dietary change (weaning, separation from mother or a period of economc stress) the child was noticed to be less lively and not eating well. Then some respiratory infection or attack at measles. Jarrhoea or fever leads to a great reduction in food intaKe and the child becomes manifestly ill. Other cases have no preceding infaetio n or fever. Growth retardation - Underweight in spite of much oedema. Shorter than normal children of same age Muscle wasting underlies oedema .Ganeral appearance - Oedema often generalised Extremities often cold hands and feet may be dusky purple. Child appears apathetic but resents attention (•leave mo alone attitude") such as when food to offerad. Eyes red, nose rnoist. mouth dribbling. Cheeks appear boggy because of oedema of buccal pad of fat Moon face is an early sign Oedema • Firsl appears on feet arid face and often spreads to involve all parts of body . Ascites rare Skin - Charaderistic dermatoses - erythema which soon changes into pigmented patches mainly in areas where the skin is subjected to continuous pressure .These patches soon dasquamate to reveal pate underlying areas. The peeling plaques of dermatosis have been compared to cracked peeling areas of paint (flaking paint dermatosis) which is pathognomonic .Occasionally
. DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN HEAT STROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION
. DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN HEAT STROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION - Heat stroke Heat Exhaustion Cause pulse, hypotension. (c) Due to water deficiency- Syndrome of predominant dehydration with elevated serum sodium. Usually seen during illnesses which prevent proper intake or absorption of water e.g cardiac or cerabral disease. Intense thirst main complaint. Also lethargy. fatigue. Irritability, abdominal discomfort and tingling in the limbs with ultimately mental confugion and muscular incoordination. Management - Large amounts of water by mouth. or IV 5 percent glucose. Since the total body sodium is Iikely to be raduced, sodium depletion may occur during phase of rehydration and salt-containing drinks should be administerd as soon as improvement is observed 22 ENDEMIC FLUOROSlS Definition - A disease entity resulting from ingestion of excessive quantities of fIuoride in drinking water over a prolonged period. It primary affects hard tissues of the body manifesting as mottling of enamel and osteosclerosis of the skeleton. Factors Influencing toxicity of fluoride -1 Fluoride concentration of drinking water- is the most important) factor. 2. Duration of exposure 3. Occupation and sex - Most cases of skeletal fluorosis occur in those doing hard manual labour. Incidence is higher in males 4. Nutrition - Poor nutrition particularly lack of proteins and calories. 5. Climate - Hot climate favours increased ingestion of water which may contain excess fluorine. Clinical features -1. Denial fluorosis -'Mottled enamel' due to dental hypoplasia with areas' of hypocalcification best seen on incisors of upper jaw. Besides brownish dscolouration there is pitting of enamel surface £ Skelelalfluorosis- (a) Symptoms-Pain and rigidiy of spine and later on of joints Paresthesiaa in hrnbs (b) Skeletal changes - [I) Irregular bone deposition may be keft as exostosis along anterior borders ol tibia, near tibial tubercle, olecranon and along medial border of scapula and near the vertebral spinous processes (il) Fixed llexlon deformity from ossffcation ol interosseoijs menbrane of forearm and leg (iii) Kyphcsis. 3. Neurologcal complications- (a) Due la conmpression of spinal cord -Paresthasiae
. EFFECTS OF HEAT Clinical manifestations -1. Heat fever -is common in the aged and in children
mg/day. 5. Treatment of anemia and other deficiences - (a) Vitamin B12 50-100 mcg twice a week together with folic acid foroptimal haemopotetic response. (b) Vitamin B complex. (c) Pancreatic enzyme tablets 0.4 gm b.d after meals. (d) Calcium salts and vitamin D. (e) Transitions in severely anemic patients 21. EFFECTS OF HEAT Clinical manifestations -1. Heat fever -is common in the aged and in children in summer months. Fever is continuous in the range of 101°-104° F and may have a spontaneous onset or follow about a week after surgery. A change in the mental state af the patient (apathy, drowsiness) may occur after about a fortnight of pyrexia wtlh tremuiousness of the hands and increased tone in the extremities Drowsiness rnay progress to coma and if undiagnosed may result in death. Treatment - Shifting the patient to cooler environment and mainfenance of electrolyte balance, 2. Heat cramps -of striated muscle from excessive salt loss due to profuse sweating in high environmental temperatures. it is common in boiler room workers, steel workers and miners Calt muscles are rnost commonly affected but cramps may occur in the chest, and when affecting abdominal muscles stimulate an acute abdomen. Treatment - Cramps can be rapidly relieved by drinking fluids containing sodium chloride or by 1/2-1 litre of normal saline IV. 3. Heat syncope -A fainting spell or 'blackout' from excessive heat and humidity. The individual drops to the ground it standing and there is transient loss of consciousness. Treatment - Lying down flat in cool surroundings is followed by quick recovery 4. Heat stroke (Sunstroke, heat hyperpyrexia) - Characterised by sudden loss of consciousness which may be preceded by prodromal signs typical of cerebral irritation - headache, dizziness, nausea, convulsions, and visual disturbances. Failure of the heat regulating centre gives rise to high fever and cessation of sweating. On examination Ihe skin is hot and flushed and dry. pulse rapid, irregular and weak and low B.P. Temperature may reach between 105°-107°F. If the patient is not treated the temperature continues to rise and a state of hyperpyrexia supervenes Managament - (a) Cooling by fanning after sprinkling with water. Immersion in cold water or use of ice packs or ice water enemas. (B) Massage of extremities to maintain circulation. (c) Sedatives contraindicated unless convulsions. (d) Normal saline 1000ml. IV slowly if dehydration or cramps, 5. Heat ehaustion -Three types: (a) Due to anhidrosis -Due to acute heat stress after long residence in tropics, may follow prickly heat. Feeling of heat and exhaustion and headache, gladdiness and palpitation. Fever 95-100°F, tachycardia and increased respiratory rate. Gollaps and coma may occur. Management -Removal to cool surroundings. (b) Due to salt deficiency - Predominant salt depletion prone to occur during
though in soms septic hyperketabolic patients hemodialvsis is preferred 8. Anemia - Blood Exchange transfusi
- immunosuppression 2. High parasitemia (>50000/ml) 3. Severe ARDS 4. Acute renal shutdown or rising serum creatinine 5. DIC3. Persistent lactic acidosis Management 1. Admission to ICU 2. Antimalarial drugs. (a) Quinine sulphate or quininedihydrochloride 20mg/kg in 500 ml N saline infused over 4 hrs, followed by quinine 10 mg/kg infused over 4 hrs every 8 hrs tillpatient is conscious and can swallow. Then oral quinine 600 mg t.d.s. for total treatment of 7 days. Or Quinine 600 mg i.v 8hourly equally effective. In case of G6PD deficiency because af danger of black water fever Mstloquine 20 mg/kg in 2 divideddoses 8-12 hrs apart or Artesunate 480-600 mg oral or i.v. in divided doses for 5 days. (b) Tetracycline 250 mg.q.ds. for 7 daysthrough nasogastric tube. (c) Chloroquine - in chloroquine sensitive areas, i. v. or infusion in a dose of 5 mg/kg in isotonic salineevery 12-24 hrs and substituted by oral medication to total dose of upto 30 mg/kg 3. Fluid and electrolyte balance- Volume of fluidaccording to state of dehydration and urine output. 4. Control of convuisions - Diazepam 0.2 mg/kg repeated every 4 hrs oreariler. If repeated seizures, phenytoin sodium as i.v. bolus at rate of 50 mg/min with monitoring of pulse and B.P. followed byoral/i.v. phenytoin 100 rng q8h 5. Control of cerebral oedema - IV Mannitol infusion. 6. Treatment of hypoglycemia -Hypoglycemia develops due to glucose consumption by the malarial parasite and hyperinsulinemia as a result of quinine therapy.Corrected with i.v dextrose. 7. Oliguria - Acute renal failure should be treated by fluid restriction reduction of maintenance doseof antimalarial by one third, and daily measurements of urea and electrolytes. Uremia can be controlled with peritoneal dialysisthough in soms septic hyperketabolic patients hemodialvsis is preferred 8. Anemia - Blood Exchange transfusion.
Antimalarial drugs - (Adults) Cnloroquine-sensitive, uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria. P. malariae. and P. ovale malaria
Antimalarial drugs - (Adults) Cnloroquine-sensitive, uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria. P. malariae. and P. ovale malaria 1. Chloroquine saulphate • Sensitive but severe malaria - Parenteral administration, total dose of 25mg/kg given as either 3.5 mg/kg s.c or i.m 6/hrty, or 0.83 mg/kg./ hr. uncomplicated chloroquine-resistant P falciparurn and P. vivax malaria -2 Quinine sulphate10 mg/kg. 8 hourly p.o. for 7 days, or Quinine 7 mg/kg (Max 400 mg) IV at constant rate over 30 min. followed by 10 mg/kg overnext 4 hrs., then 10 mg 8 hourly for 7 days. Infusion time 3-4 hours. Side-effects of quinine -Hypotension. hypoglycemia, cardiacarrhythmias. 3. Sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine Sulphadoxine 25 mg/kg plus Pyrimethamine 1.25 mg/kg, as single oral dose. ifresistance to sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine known or suspected - Doxycycline 200 mg once, then 100 mgdaily for 6 days orTetracycline 5 mg/kg (max. 250 mg) q.d.s for 7 days (should not be given to children or pregnant women). 4. Meltoquine - 2doses of 15 mg/kg 12 hourly p.o. (Maximum dose 1000 mg.) Contraindicated in those on -blocking drugs, and it history ofneuropsychiatric disease including epilepsy. Side-effects - Nausea, vertigo, confusion, psychosis and convulsions. 5. Artemisinin(a) Artemether 200 mg p. o. Initial dose,followed by 100 mg 6 hours later, then 100 mg daily for 4 days (total dose 700 mg). It clears parasites rapidly with virtually no sideeffects, but high rate of recrudescence. (b) Artesunate. Oral-100 mg b.d on 1st day,then 50 mg b.d. for 4-6 days. Children half the adults dose. Parenteral: 120 mg i.v. or i.rn on day 1 followed by 60 mg o.d. for next 4days. Total dose 360-480 mg. 6. Halofantrine - (9 phenanthrene methanal) Dosage: Adults p.o. 600 mg q6h for 3 doses.ChildrenB mg/kg q6h. Adverse effects - Prolongation of PR and QT intervals. Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, darrhoea. Orthostatichypotension, pruritus and rash. Raraly intravascular hemolysis. Radical cure of P. vivax or P ovale Primaquine -15 mg/day p.o.for 14 days. Side-effects - Cyanosis (due to methemoglobin), colicky abdominal pains. Acute hemolysis may occur in G6PDdeficient individuals. (P. malariae does not have a hypnozoite stage, hence primaquine treatment is not required) Clinicalmanifestations of fulminant PI. falciparum malaria 1. Cerebral Pyrexia (often >105°F) Confusion Drowsiness progressing tocoma Seizures Ocutogyric crisis. Retinal hemorrhages. Extensor plantars 2. Acute renal faiture caused by acute tubular necrosis3. Hypotension and shock 4. Hypoglycemia 5. Pulmonary: ARDS Acute pulmonary oedema 6. Severe anemia 7.Hypertactacidaemia caused by umpaired tissue perfusion in tissues occupied by sequestered parasites, and exacerbated
Discover Some Magic To Beat The Forex: The Elliott Wave Theory For Forex Markets
the Elliot Wave theory states that the market – in this case, the forex market – moves in a series of 5 swings upward and 3 swings back down, repeated perpetually. But if it were that simple, everyone would be making a killing by catching the wave and riding it until just before it crashes on the shore. Obviously, there’s a lot more to it.
One of the things that makes riding the Elliot Wave so tricky is timing – of all the major wave theories, it’s the only one that doesn’t put a time limit on the reactions and rebounds of the market. A single In fact, the theories of fractal mathematics makes it clear that there are multiple waves within waves within waves. Interpreting the data and finding the right curves and crests is a tricky process, which gives rise to the contention that you can put 20 experts on the Elliot Wave theory in one room and they will never reach an agreement on which way a stock – or in this case, a currency – is headed.
Elliot Wave Basics
• Every action is followed by a reaction.It’s a standard rule of physics that applies to the crowd behavior on which the Elliot Wave theory is based. If prices drop, people will buy. When people buy, the demand increases and supply decreases driving prices back up. Nearly every system that uses trend analysis to predict the movements of the currency market is based on determining when those actions will cause reactions that make a trade profitable.
One of the things that makes riding the Elliot Wave so tricky is timing – of all the major wave theories, it’s the only one that doesn’t put a time limit on the reactions and rebounds of the market. A single In fact, the theories of fractal mathematics makes it clear that there are multiple waves within waves within waves. Interpreting the data and finding the right curves and crests is a tricky process, which gives rise to the contention that you can put 20 experts on the Elliot Wave theory in one room and they will never reach an agreement on which way a stock – or in this case, a currency – is headed.
Elliot Wave Basics
• Every action is followed by a reaction.It’s a standard rule of physics that applies to the crowd behavior on which the Elliot Wave theory is based. If prices drop, people will buy. When people buy, the demand increases and supply decreases driving prices back up. Nearly every system that uses trend analysis to predict the movements of the currency market is based on determining when those actions will cause reactions that make a trade profitable.
. Penicillamine-induced myasthenia - is similar to adult myasthenia gravis, and usually resolves over several months after drug withdrawal. 5. Congeni
: Main groups of acquired myasthenia gravis GROUP I: Early onset (<40>40 years); weakness generalized or ocular only; incidence higher in men; thymic atrophy/involution; anti-AChR antibody titres low: GROUP IV: Seronegative; weakness ocular only or generalized; thymic atrophy/involution; anti-AChR antibodies absent, but auto-antibodies to other muscle cell targets are implicated Investigations. 1. Anti-AChR antibody (AchRAb) - Titre elevated in 90% of patients with generalized myasthenia. 2. Anti-striated muscle antibody - detectable in over 90% with thymoma and in about 30% of other patients. 3. Edrophonium chloride (Tensilon) test -necessary: if (a) Diagnosis has to be made immediately because of disease severity. (b) Patient -is sero-negative for anti-AChR antibodies. If no side-effects develop after IV test dose of 1 -2 mg, further 5-8 mg is injected. Positive response consists of obvious improvement in strength within 1 minute. This test can be combined with EMG. 4. Electrodiagnosis- (a) Repetitive nerve stimulation - Electrical stimuli are given at rate of 3/sec., and action potentials recorded from surface electrodes over muscles. A rapid reduction in amplitude of evoked muscle action potential is considered a positive response. (b) EMG studies - include recording the response to nerve stimulation and single muscle fibre studies (SF-EMG). 5. CXR and CT or MRI - for thymoma. If negative initially, it should be
. Symptoms are asymmetrical. (b) Limb weakness - may involve proximal or distal muscles. (c) Bulbar muscle weakness - leads to loss of facial expressi
following repetitive contraction with a tendency to recovery of motor power after a period of inactivity. (a) Ocular muscles - first to be involved causing double vision or ptosis. Symptoms are asymmetrical. (b) Limb weakness - may involve proximal or distal muscles. (c) Bulbar muscle weakness - leads to loss of facial expression, inability to whistle, difficulty with speech, chewing and swallowing. Weakness of neck muscles and jaw causes patient to use a hand to support his jaw. (d) Respiratory muscle involvement -can lead to shortness of breath and ventilatory failure in severe cases. Other precipitating factors -Emotional stress, pregnancy and infection apart from exercise can lead to exacerbation of symptoms. IMMUNE DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH MYASTHENIA GRAVIS - Rheumatoid arthritis, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, polymyositis, SLE, pernicious anaemia, Sjogren's syndrome, pemphigus. Clinical types 1. Neonatal myasthenia - Transient illness in babies born to myasthenic mothers. 2. Juvenile myasthenia - in younger age group. 3. Eaton-Lambert myasthenic syndrome - often associated with bronchial carcinoma. Differs from true myasthenia thus - (i) Onset in later age. (ii) Power improves following exercise. (iii) Limb muscles more involved than ocular. (iv) Tendon reflexes usually diminished. (v) Poor response to treatment with neostigmine and abnormal sensitivity to decamethonium 4. Penicillamine-induced myasthenia - is similar to adult myasthenia gravis, and usually resolves over several months after drug withdrawal. 5. Congenital myasthenia - at or close to birth.
. When photo decomposition occurs, the rhodopsin is said to be bleached. Cones Cones are necessary for (i) daylight or bright light (photopic) vision,
The cone pigment, like the rhodopsin, consists of a combination of retinal and 'photopsin'. Photopsin is a protein which differs only slightly from scotopsin of the rhodopsin. Therefore, cone pigment = photopsin + retinal. However, there are three classes of cone pigment, (i) red sensitive (erythrolabe), (ii) green sensitive cehloro-labe) and (iii) blue sensitive (cyanolabe). They are maximally sensitive at the 430 nm (430 m u) for blue sensitive cones, 535 nm (535 m u) for green sensitive and 575 nm (575 m u) for red sensitive cones, wave lengths. Photochemistry of photopic vision Cones are required for photopic vision. When light of high intensity, strikes the cones, it may be presumed, that, the photochemical changes occur in the cone pigment in the cones and they are very similar to those of rhodopsin in rods. Note: 1. Photoreceptors, i.e, rods and cones, are present in outer part of the retina. Outer to this, the pigment layer i: situated. Some rays (which fall on the retina) are not ab sorbed by the photoreceptors and reach the pigment layer, where
Retinal is aldehyde of retmol, the retmol (which contains an alcoholic group, fig 7.14.1) being vit A Retinal is also known as retinene. In short reti
In rhodopsin, the retinal belongs to the cis variety. The particular type of opsin that occurs in the rhodopsin is sometimes called scotopsin. When light strikes the rods, the cis retinal is converted into trans retinal. This conversion, by some means, produces a local electrical change, i.e., causes development of a receptor potential (see sec XB2 chap 3, photoreceptor potential, for details) which marks the beginning of the nerve impulse. Subsequent fate of the retinal The trans form of the retinal can no longer remain in combination with the opsin, so separation of opsin and the trans form of the retinal occurs. Subsequently the trans form of retinal enters into the pigment layer of the retina (which lies immediately outside the layer of rods and cones) leaving the opsin within the rods. In the pigment layer, the trans form is converted into the cis form of retinal which then comes back to the rod and reunites with the opsin to form rhodopsin again. The whole process is called regeneration of the photopigment, rhodopsin The separation of opsin and trans retinal is called 'photo decomposition'. When photo decomposition occurs, the rhodopsin is said to be bleached. Cones Cones are necessary for (i) daylight or bright light (photopic) vision, (ii) color vision, and (iii) acuity of vision. In the macula, particularly in the fovea there are only cones (and no rods).
. Oxygen poisoning There are many conditions where 02 inhalation is required for treatment purposes. However, heroic 02 inhalation and the resultant o
. However, heroic 02 inhalation and the resultant over correction of 02 deficiency are associated with many dangers (chap 6, sec IV). One such special danger, in the new born, is, spasm of the central artery of the retina leading to degeneration of the retina and blindness. Recall, excess 02 causes spasm of the blood vessels PHOTO CHEMISTRY OF VISION In this portion, we will discuss, the chemical changes that occur when the light (photos) strikes a rod or a cone. The changes therefore are called photochemical changes. [At their initial phase, these photochemical changes cause development of impulse in the rods or cones. The impulses are then conveyed by the bipolar cells, then to the ganglion cells and eventually by the optic nerve to the appropriate part of the brain]. Rods and scotopic ('dim light') vision Rods are required for, as stated already, dimlight or night (scotopic) vision. Rods contain, in their discs of outer segment (fig. 10B2. 2. 3), a pigment called rhodopsin (also called 'visual purple'). Rhodopsin molecule is produced by combination of opsin (a protein) and retinal. Retinal is aldehyde of retmol, the retmol (which contains an alcoholic group, fig 7.14.1) being vit A Retinal is also known as retinene.
. This means that in order to utilize all the rods, there must be pupillary dilatation (dilatation of pupil, typically occurs in the dim light or in d
rods but no cones. This means that in order to utilize all the rods, there must be pupillary dilatation (dilatation of pupil, typically occurs in the dim light or in darkness). Rods are required for vision in darkness. Senile macular degeneration (SMD). SMD is common in old persons. Blood vessels appear in the macula (recall macula is normally avascular), ultimately, this leads to blindness. Treatment consists of using laser beams to halt the progress of blood vessels. Optic disc The axons of the ganglion cells are collected together into a bundle and this bundle exits from the eye as the optic nerve. The beginning of the optic nerve in the retina is called the optic disc. Optic disc is also the blind spot in the retina as there is no rod or cone over the optic disc. The optic disc can be seen directly by an instrument called ophthalmoscope. In glaucoma, the optic disc, owing to high intraocular pressure, may become cup shaped ("glaucomatous cupping", a diagnostic sign of glaucoma), whereas in papilledema (edema of the optic disc; incidentally, optic disc is also called 'optic papilla', hence papilledema = edema of the optic disc) which may develop in severe hypertension, kidney disease and brain tumor (all due to edema of the brain) the optic disc is swollen and its outlines become blurred. Both glaucomatous cupping and papilledema can be seen by ophthalmoscope. APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY Retinal detachment A clevage may appear between the pigment layer and the rest of the layers of the retina. This is usually the result of contraction of vitreous humor. The detachment can be repaired and provided the repair is made within a short time (a few days) after the detachment, restoration of vision occurs satisfactorily. If however, the repair is done after a long delay, inspite of the anatomical repair, restoration of vision does not occur, because the retina has degenerated in the mean time. One method of treatment is to reattach the layers by photocoagulation. Oxygen poisoning There are many conditions where 02 inhalation is required for treatment purposes.
Thus, receptor is the first structure in the sensory path. A receptor may be a special structure (like a Pacinian corpuscle) or a bare nerve terminal
. A receptor may be a special structure (like a Pacinian corpuscle) or a bare nerve terminal (e.g. pain). Receptors are also called 'end organs'. The receptors are stimulated when excited by their specific stimulus (eg, rods and cones by ligtl or Merkel's disc by touch) 4 the receptors are now excited the nerve which emerges from the receptor is next excited and ultimately this nerve impulse reaches the brain. The specific sense is now perceived. HISTOLOGY OF RECEPTORS 1. Some receptors are encapsulated structures within which lies the beginning of the afferent nerve. The afferent nerve, therefore begins from here. Examples are, (i) Meissner s corpuscle; (ii) Pacimian corpuscle (fig 10B1.1.1). II. Some receptors are expanded structures which forms the beginning of an afferent sensory nerve. Examples are - (i) Merkel's disc, (ii) Ruffini's end organ. III. Some other receptors are free nerve endings. Pain receptor is the classical example. IV. Other receptors, like rods and cones, cristae and maculae, carotid body chemoreceptors, muscle spindle etc. have specialized structures and have been described elsewhere in this book. A Mechano receptors These are stimulated when they are deformed by the stimulating agent. As a result, the emerging afferent nerve is stimulated. Eg: baro receptors, cristae and maculae, Merkel's disc. Meissner's corpuscle. B .Thermo receptors. C Pain receptors. D. Chemoreceptors. They detect concentrations of some particular chemicals (Eg. carotid body chemo receptors, gluco receptors, central chemoreceptors). CLASSIFICATION Receptors are usually classified as
. The senses mentioned above, are all fundamental senses. However many other senses exist, which are admixtures of two (or more) fundamenlal senses an
, which are admixtures of two (or more) fundamenlal senses and are called synthetic senses. Example: (i) stereognosis, (ii) two point discrimination, pruritus(itching) is also another example of synthetic sense. 4. Epicritic and protopathic senses In the beginning of the current cenlury, Head and his colleagues classified the superficial senses into (a) epicritic, and (b) protopathic senses. Epicritic senses are (i) fine touch, (n) Iwo point discrimination and (iii)) fine gradation of temperature (ability to discriminate between say 35°C and 40°C object). Protopathic senses are crude senses, like crude touch,pain, crude temperature sense, and so on. Protopathic senses are more primitive. When a nerve fiber regenerates after an injury, it is the protopathic senses which return first. 5. Body image Normally we have our body image, that is, we have a clear idea of the different parts of our body in relation to the different objects around us For example, I know how much space my left half of the body occupies and therefore when I walk by the side of a wall (on the left side) I do not walk so close to the wall that my left sided limbs are rubbed against the wall. Somehow, for the maintenance of our body image, parietal lobes must remain intact. THE RECEPTORS 1. Introduction 2. The different receptors 3. Histology 4. Classification 5. Properties ' INTRODUCTION Receptors may be considered as struclures which catch the sensory stimulus. From the receptors, emerge the afferent sensory nerve which eventually reaches the CNS. Thus, receptor is the first structure in the sensory path.
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. Telereceptors are receptors where the origin of thestimulus comes from a distance, (eg, vision, audition). This _form of sense, thus, can be called
Telereceptors are receptors where the origin of thestimulus comes from a distance, (eg, vision, audition). This _form of sense, thus, can be called telereception. 3. Interoceptors are those which detect any change in the internal environment [eg, changes in blood pressure (baroreceptors), changes in 02 tension/pH of blood (chemore-ceptors)] Such senses may be called interoception. 4. Proprioceptors are receptors which detect the degree of tone/ contraction of skeletal muscles (length detection), the degree of flexion/extension/other movements of joints and thus the CNS is kept informed of the position of the body/limb in space, posture and so on. Such senses may be called proprioception. Some commonly used terms 1. 'Somasthetic senses' means - (i) touch - pressure, (ii) thermal, (iii)) pain and (iv) proprioceptive senses plus various 'synthetic' cutaneous senses (eg vibration/stereognosis). 2. Conscious and non-conscious senses. Some senses (eg. pain) reach the level of consciousness in the brain. Such senses are called conscious senses. Some senses, on the other hand, do not reach the level of consciousness and thus they form nonconscious (or subconscious) senses. Examples are (i) some proprioceptive senses, (n) baroreceptor senses etc. 3. Synthetic senses. The senses mentioned above, are all fundamental senses. However many other senses exist, which are admixtures of two (or more) fundamenlal senses and are called synthetic senses.
. Of the properties of reflexes, habituation and sensilization have become very important because of their roles in synaptic plasticity (chap 3 sec XA
Babinski's sign almost rules out pyramidal tract lesion. Of the properties of reflexes, habituation and sensilization have become very important because of their roles in synaptic plasticity (chap 3 sec XA), memory and both +ve and -ve learning (chap 6 sec XD) INTRODUCTION 1. Inlroductory nole 2. Classfcation of senses 3. Some commonly used terms Introduction. The sensory system brings informations from Ihe periphery to the CNS. Conventionally, Ihe sensory system is divided into (a) general senses, (b) special senses. No salisfactory classification of senses exists. However, some existing classifications are given below. One form of classification is given on table 10B1.1.1. The special senses have been discussed in section XB2. The present subsection XB1 deals only with the general sensations. Senses may be classified in another way. In this form, receptors, rather than the senses are classified. However, end result remains the same: 1. Exteroceptors are those receptors which sense the immediate external (surrounding) environment, eg. cutaneous receptors for touch, pain, heat, cold etc. Thus the sense detecled by exteroceptors may be called exteroception. 2. Telereceptors are receptors where the origin of thestimulus comes from a distance, (eg, vision, audition). This _form of sense, thus, can be called telereception.
Although the current chapter deals with the physiology of exercise, it does not aim to be a treatise on sports physiology, for which excellent books a
. Classification of exercise The grading of seventy of exercise is made on the basis of: (1) energy expenditure/mm, (ii) power, that is, the rate of doing work, which is expressed in Watt (W) and (in) the pulse rate. The energy expenditure is expressed as the volume of oxygen utilized (also called 'O2 uptake') per minute. [Recall, energy, expenditure is usually measured, indirectly, by noting the 02 consumed, as 02 consumption is proportional to energy expenditure. Direct measurement of energy expenditure is cumbersome. In short, from measurement of the 02 consumptions, one can know the energy expenditure.] In colder climates, e.g. as that in Europe, these three parameters are often in harmony, as shown in table 9.3.1. able 93.1 Gradation of Exercise (based according to Ghristensen) Glass of O2 uptake Power Pulse rate exercise (liters/mm) (W) (per mm) Maximal > 2. 5850 or more > 175 Very heavy 2 to 2. 5 680 to 850 150-175 Heavy 1.5 to 2 510 to 680 120-150 Moderate 1.0 to 1.5340 to 510 100-120 Light Upto 1.0 170 to 340 above resting but upto 100. In tropical countries like India, the gradations according to the different parameters will not tally as in table 9.3.1. This is
the ATP resynthesis from EMP occurs much quicker than that from Krebs cycle. Recall, the number of steps in EMP is, much smaller than that in the Kreb
. Metabolic. 4.Thermal and cutaneous. 5. Second wind. 6. Water end electrolyte. 7. Eruiocrinal. 8. Steady state. IV. Fatigue V. Effects of training. Isometric versus isotonic exercise. VI. Therapeutic values of exercises. Introduction The history of sports is probably as old as the history of man himself. In the ancient classic 'Shrimat Bhagvatam', there are references of professional wrestlers Lord Krishna while still in His very early teens, (or, may be even when he was only eleven) beat some of the greatest contemporary professional wrestlers" in the court of the tyrant king Kamsa. Both the ancient Greeks and Romans were great sport loving people and their sports included a formidable variety. The ancient Buddhist priests, to whom non violence was a creed, practised kangfu to protect themselves from the armed bandits. Yet, the physiology of exercise, in particular, sports physiology is not a very old subject. It is however, growing very rapidly now, and a probable reason of its rapid growth may be the patronage it receives from the state and the society. The state and the society hope that development of sports physiology in the country can bring reputation for the country not only in the field of sports but also in other fields too. The modern sports have become indeed very demanding because of the fierce competitions. Besides, regular physical exercise is known to have beneficial effects on many diseases. Although the current chapter deals with the physiology of exercise, it does not aim to be a treatise on sports physiology, for which excellent books are available II.
'hexose monophosphate shunt' (PPP/HMP), which has been described in chap. 6, sec. VII. For energy, yield, however, this path is of minor importance. 8
cycle also operates and is called 'pentose phosphate pathway' or 'hexose monophosphate shunt' (PPP/HMP), which has been described in chap. 6, sec. VII. For energy, yield, however, this path is of minor importance. 8. As a result, when the muscle operates (completely/ partially) anaerobically, lactic acid begins to accumulate in the muscle and is then spilled over to the blood. The resting blood lactate value (about 5 mg/100 ml) can shoot upto values like 150 mg/100 ml after a severely anaerobic exercise of some duration (200 m sprinting). 9. Until a few decades ago, it used to be believed that during exercise the muscle depends on carbohydrate catabolism for ATP resynthesis (energy supply). It is now firmly established that during mild or even during moderate exercise, the muscle utilizes fatty acids (not carbohydrate) for ATP resynthesis. It is only during severe exercise, the muscle utilizes the carbohydrate for energy supply. Fatty acids, during their catabolism can produce high amount of energy for resynthesis of ATP (chap. 9, see. VII, energetics in fatty acid oxidation). a smallerAamount of ATP no doubt, but velocity of the total reaction being much faster, the ATP resynthesis from EMP occurs much quicker than that from Krebs cycle. Recall, the number of steps in EMP is, much smaller than that in the Krebs' and hence the velocity is higher. " For details, see chapter on biological oxidation (chap 2 sec VII). I. Introduction II. Classification of exercise
- Multiform psychic pictures - (a) Simple demented type - Memory defect, impairment of judgement and lability of mood going on to imbecility. (b) Gran
. Terminal stage or period of decline - Fits, sometimes with transient neurological deficits may accompany deterioration or occasionally herald it. Motor signs gradually appear until the Insane' patient becomes gradually paralysed, mute and incontinent. Death from intercurrent infection is common SIGNS - (i) Pupillary abnormalities often of Argyll-Robertson type. (ii) Cranial nerves - Optic atrophy much less common than in tabes. Coarse tremors of facial, labial and tongue muscles. (iii) Slurred and tremulous speech, micrographia and inability to write in straight line. (iv) Exaggerated deep reflexes, plantars extensor. (v) Tabes dorsalis may co-exist (Taboparesis). CSF -Moderate pleocytosis, 15-100 cells per c.mm, increased protein and positive antibody tests. Tabes dorsalis CLINICAL FEATURES: Basic lesion - is in the root entry zone of the posterior nerve roots and there is ascending degeneration of the posterior columns, diagnostic features are referable to these 1.
) Finally progressive spastic paraplegia with sensory loss below the level of the lesion. CSF -Mild or moderate lymphocytic pleocytosis, protein conte
Spinal gumma - Symptoms of rapidly growing spinal tumour. 8. Syphilitic amyotrophy - Closely resembles idiopathic progressive muscular atrophy or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Sensory loss absent or minimal. Pain in the affected limb may occur at onset and is sometimes severe. VDRL test positive Anti-syphilitic treatment arrests progress of the disease. 7. Radiculitis - Syphilis usually affects the posterior roots which gives rise to pain of segmental distribution. If anterior roots are affected, there is weakness and wasting of the segmental muscles. 8. Pseudotabes - Onset 18 months to 5 years after primary infection. Presents with root pains, absent deep reflexes and bladder disturbances. No AR pupils. III. Parenchymatous Neurosyphilis General Paresis of the Insane (GPI) CLINICAL FEATURES: Stages: 1. Incipient stage -Presenting symptoms often vague as in dementing illness, ill-defined personality changes with irritability and forgetfulness, poor concentration, headaches and weight loss. 2. Period of full development of psychosis - Multiform psychic pictures - (a) Simple demented type - Memory defect, impairment of judgement and lability of mood going on to imbecility. (b) Grandiose type - Sense of euphoria and expressions of delusions of grandeur.
. Acute transverse myelitis (Spinal vascular syphilis) - Spinal arterial thrombosis produces myelitis of sudden onset or with premonitory pains, if co
paraplegia and sphincter disturbances develop between a few days to several weeks after onset of pains. 2. Acute transverse myelitis (Spinal vascular syphilis) - Spinal arterial thrombosis produces myelitis of sudden onset or with premonitory pains, if coexisting syphilitic meningeal involvement. Symptoms of complete or almost complete transection of the cord. If the lateral branch of the anterior spinal artery is thrombosed, there is weakness of segmental muscles and also hemianaesthesia on opposite side if spinothalamic tract is damaged. In thrombosis of posterior spinal artery signs are confined to a few segments. Postural and vibration sense are impaired if posterior columns involved. 3. Cervical hypertrophic pachymeningitis - (i) Pain in neck, radiating down the upper limbs and between the shoulders. (ii) Progressive weakness and atrophy of muscles supplied by the corresponding anterior roots. (iii) Finally progressive spastic paraplegia with sensory loss below the level of the lesion. CSF -Mild or moderate lymphocytic pleocytosis, protein content greatly elevated. 4. Erb's spastic paraparesis-Progression of paraparesis is very slow and there is little sensory loss
Infectious diseases - Brucellosis, Lyme disease (c) Granulomatous disorders - Sarcoidosis, Wegner's granulomatosis. These disorders may be associated
Infectious diseases - Brucellosis, Lyme disease (c) Granulomatous disorders - Sarcoidosis, Wegner's granulomatosis. These disorders may be associated with oligoclonal bands in CSF and multifocal white matter lesions on Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis - usually preceded by viral illness produces widespread CNS disturbance with drowsiness or coma. (a) Compressive lesions, progressive spastic paraplegia (tumours and A-V malformations of the cord). (b) Tropical spastic paraparesis must be excluded by testing for antibodies to human T lymphocyte virus type 1. (c) Leber's optic neuropathy if severe, persistent visual loss Management: No effective curative treatment. I. TREATMENT MODIFYING TM COURSE OF DISEASE (a) Non-specific immunosuppressants - Short course of cyclophosphamide or continuous administration of azathioprine may prevent relapses. (b) Cytokines and cytokine inhibitors -interferon-1b 8 million units s.c. Side-effects - Flu-like symptoms particularly in first month, skin reactions. The drug has a number of immunological effects - as an antagonist of both production and action of interferon, down regulation of major histocompatibility complex class gene products and macrophage production of inflammatory mediators. 2. ACUTE RELAPSE - (a) Corticosteroids - Methyl prednisolone 500 mg day by slow infusion for 5 days or 1 g/day for 3 days. Response rapid and side-effects negligible. (b) ACTH - to shorten duration of acute relapse. 40 units ACTH gel b.d. for one week reducing the dose over next 2 weeks. 3. SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT - (i) Spasticity - In severe spasticity, intrathecal baclofen. Local nerve block with botulinum toxin or phenol may also help. (ii) Tremor -Isoniazid 600-1200 mg/day with pyridoxine 10 mg/day, b-blockers, primidone. (iii) Paroxysmal symptoms (including trigeminal neuralgia, tonic seizures, paroxysmal dysarthria and ataxia) - Carbamazepine. (iv) Chronic dysaesthetic pain - Tricyclic antidepressants. (v) Urinary frequency and urgency - Oxybutynin (vi) Nocturia -Desmopressin. (vii) Fatigue - Amantadine, pemoline, calcium antagonists. 18. DEFICIENCY DISORDER OFa
Paroxysmal symptoms - such as trigeminal neuralgia with brief agonising facial pain, tonic seizures, dysarthria and ataxia. 7. Lhermitte's sign - not
pain rare Impairment of postural or vibration sense. 4. Ocular - Unilateral retrobulbar neuritis, pallor of temporal half of disc in 50%. Diplopia and nystagmus common 5. Mental - Emotional changes, euphoria, delusions, terminal dementia. 6. Paroxysmal symptoms - such as trigeminal neuralgia with brief agonising facial pain, tonic seizures, dysarthria and ataxia. 7. Lhermitte's sign - not specific but highly suggestive. 8. Uhthoffs phenomenon - Worsening of weakness or vision with heat, e.g. hot bath, or exercise CRITERIA FOR DIAGNOSIS -1. Age of onset 10-50 years. 2. Lesions dissociated in time and place. 3. Predominantly white-matter affection. 4. Interval between episodes about one month or chronic progressive over 6 months (especially in older people). 5. Disease lasting for more than a year. 6. All other causes have been ruled out. Investigations: 1. CSF -Increase in total protein upto 1 g/litre, or increase in lymphocytes upto 50 x 106 /litre or both. Oligoclonal IgG (in 90%), but not specific. 2. Evoked potentials - Visual evoked potential often delayed. 3. MRI - Most useful investigation. Areas of demyelinating plaques visible on MRI imaging with gadolinium contrast Cd-DPTA-enhanced MRI. May also be seen in inflammatory, granulomatous and vascular disorders. Diff. Diag. of multifocal CNS syndrome with relapsing and remitting course in young adults (a) Inflammatory disorders -Isolated angiitis of CNS, SLE, primary Sjogren's syndrome, Bechet's disease, polyarteritis nodosa.
. Any process interfering with the function of these structures may result in coma. Causes: 1. Structural brain damage - Infarction Hemorrhage Tumour
. ypoglycemia Wernicke's encephalopathy. Hypo/hypenatremia, Hypo/hypercalcemia.(b) Endocrine - Diabetic coma, myxoedema, Addison's disease, pituitary apoplexy. (c) Drug overdose and poisons - Barbiturates, organophosphorus poisoning, alcohol, carbon monoxide poisoning, etc. (d) Physical agents - Hypothermia, heat stroke. (e) Hypertensive encephalopathy. (f) Septicemia. 3. Psychogenic. iagnosis of Coma: I. Structural brain damage - A Supratentorial mass lesions: 1. Signs of causative lesion -e.g, hemiparesis, papilloedema. 2. Signs due to expanding mass lesion - causing downward displacement of the temporal lobe over the edge of the tentorium (uncal herniation), or midline compression of the upper brain-stem - (a) Uncal herniation - Signs of hemiparesis and papilloedema, and sequential loss of 3rd nerve function. Unilateral dilatation of the pupil with impaired response to light implies temporal lobe herniation. (b) Central herniation - Orderly progression of brain
convulsions or stiff neck. Spinal puncture is done only for diagnostic purposes. Repeated lumbar punctures may give rise to a new leakage. (d) Symptom
Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) - are congenital abnormalities which may affect any part of the brain, including cerebellum and brain stem. Clinical presentation: 1 Intracranial bleeding - more commonly intracerebral. 2 Epilepsy - AVMs responsible are usually large parietal lesions. 3. Progressive neurological deficits - such as slowly evolving hemiparesis. 4.Headache - may be the only presenting symptom. Investigations - CT scan can demonstrate large AVMs. Angiography for small AVMs when surgical excision is being considered. Treatment - Surgery indicated if hemorrhage has occurred and the malformation is easily accessible and can be excised without neurological deficit (b) Embolization of feeding arteries of large lesions with multiple feeders. (c) Stereotoxic radiosurgery may be used to obliterate small AVMs. 12. COMA AND BRAIN DEATH Definition - A state of unarousable unresponsiveness or absence of any psychologically understandable response to external stimuli or inner need Consciousness depends on the interaction of cerebral hemispheres and the reticular activating system of the upper brain stem. Any process interfering with the function of these structures may result in coma. Causes: 1. Structural brain damage - Infarction Hemorrhage Tumour Hematoma Infection: Meningitis, cerebral malaria, encephalitis, abscess Trauma 2. Systemic causes: (a) Metabolic - Anoxia-ischemia. Respiratory, cardiac, hepatic or renal failure.
Repeated lumbar punctures may give rise to a new leakage. (d) Symptomatic treatment - Analgesics and/or diazepam for headache and restlessness.
headache, convulsions or stiff neck. Spinal puncture is done only for diagnostic purposes. Repeated lumbar punctures may give rise to a new leakage. (d) Symptomatic treatment - Analgesics and/or diazepam for headache and restlessness. 2. SURGICAL - for prevention of rebleeding - (a) Direct clipping - of the aneurysm neck - is optimal method of treatment. (b) Trapping - Clipping of proximal and distal vessels for giant aneurysms and intracavernous aneurysms. Prior anastomosis of superficial temporal to middle cerebral artery minimises the risk of isehemic deficit. (c) Wrapping - If clipping is not possible because of the width of the aneurysm or its attachment to adjacent vessels, muslin gauze can be wrapped round the fundus. (d) Induced thrombosis -within the aneurysm sac. Risky and rebleeding may occur. (e) An aneurysm is localised - Ligation of internal carotid or common carotid artery in neck Indications - (i) Young patients with severe initial hemorrhage or early recurrences. (ii) Subdural hematoma following ruptured aneurysm. (iii) Aneurysms arising directly from carotid artery where clipping has failed or not attempted e.g. intracavernous or giant ophthalmic artery aneurysm.
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